LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






UNITED STATES OP AMERICA.! 



HADLEY'S SERIES 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

AN ADVANCED COURSE 

OF 

LESSONS IN LANGUAGE, 

BY 

MARY V. LEE, 

TEACHER IN MINNESOTA STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, 
AND 

HIRAM HADLEY, 



ICTIIon OF LESSONS IN LANGUAGE. 



1 As grammar was made alter language, co ought it to be taught after language." 

— Herbert Spexcek. 

: Grammar is not the stepping stone but the finishing instrument." 

— M. Madcel. 



3 



CHICAGO : 
HADLEY BROTHERS. 

1874. 




Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 

Hadley Brothers, 
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



B. Richardson, Printer, 

Chicago. 



Sehniedewend, Lee & Co. 
Electrotypers. 



PREFACE. 

This volume has been prepared to supplement Hadley's Lessons 
in Language, but may be used independently. It is designed to 
be an exponent of the improved methods of teaching all subjects, 
and in the department to which it is devoted, we think it will be 
found well adapted to the training of pupils in the correct and ready 
use of the English language. Through this training and the inves- 
tigation which it necessitates, pupils will come to comprehend and 
appreciate the Jaws of language. 

A long experience in different grades of schools has convinced 
the authors that a work is needed as a substitute, on the one hand, 
for books that contain chiefly statements and rules, and, on the 
other, for purely oral instruction, which, however excellent, is apt to 
be desultory and to lead to an indisposition to study a subject 
thoroughly. 

The standard language of any people is not formed or materially 
modified by the arbitrary rules of any author on grammar. Gram- 
mar is a codifying of the laws of the language. These are derived 
from an examination of the structure. After long observation and 
comparison of facts, by induction we reach them. Hence, is it not 
proper that pupils should be trained to investigate, examine the lan- 
guage as it is, compare, search out and give expression to those laws? 
Will not such a course tend to fit them both for practical life and inde- 
pendent research? 

The ability to parse, analyze sentences and perform kindred exer- 
cises, is no guarantee of ability to successfully use language ; henco. 
we have given an abundance of composing exercises which exempli- 
fy the application of laws. 

The method employed may, with propriety, be called the develope- 
ment method. By it the pupil is led from his intuitions and discov- 
eries to derive his own conclusions. Hence, the book is peculiar, in 
that many subjects are taught by a series of questions, to none of which 



PREFACE. 

have we given answers. It is hoped that these have been so care- 
fully and logically prepared, that the answering of one fits the pupil 
to sucessfully master the next, and thus by his own efforts to reach an 
intelligent result. 

As a preparation for recitation, we expect these questions to be 
patiently studied and mastered by the pupil. The conclusions 
reached, as contained in the abstract statements, should be memorized. 

We have not tried to shun the beaten path where we found it 
smooth, properly graded and leading in the right direction ; neither 
have we followed any path that did not seem to lead to our desired 
object in such manner as to give to the pupil's mind the greatest 
amount of thought-culture and practical knowledge. 

We invite attention to our forms for analysis, parsing, &c, — 
the distinguishing feature of which is, that the order of expression is 
the same as the necessary order of thought, — thus compelling pupils 
to think before they speak. 

We expect the book to find little favor with the mechanical, 
routine teacher, or task-master, who is accustomed to measure his 
success by the amount of cramming done, but we hope to find its 
friends among the patient, earnest teachers, who value the awakening 
ot one thought more than the memorizing of many words, rules, 
forms and definitions. To such we entrust it, believing that they 
will find reflected from its pages much that is in harmony with their 
own experience, and we hope that they will discover in it a vitality 
that will tend to throw a charm around the study and use of the 
English language. 

Au<y. I, 1874. 



CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

The Sentence, .................... 7 

Classes of Sentences, . .............. 10 

Simple Subject, .<>........... 13 

Simple Predicate, 16 

Complex Subject,. 20 

Complex Predicate, 24 

Principal and Subordinate Elements 27 

Forms of Elements, 30 

Analysis of Sentences, . . 32, 40, 66 

Nouns, 34 

Pronouns,. . . .36, 133 

Adjective Elements, 38 

Adjectives, 41, 159 

Verbs 45, 174 

Participles,. 48, 211 

Infinitives, 51, 211 

Attributes and Predicates, 53 

Attributive Verbs,.. 56 

Propositions, ^. . 53 

Adverbial Elements, 59 

Adverbs, .62, 244 

Objective Elements, 74 

Prepositions, 82, 253 

Compound Sentences, \ ........... . 88 

Co-ordinate Connectors, 91 

Compound Elements, 9:3 

Subordinate Connectors, 95 

Interjections, 97, 271 

Classes of Nouns, 107 

Person, . . 112 

Number, 116 

Foi-mation of Plurals, 117 



CONTENTS, 

Gender,.. „. .o ............................ . 123 

Case, ............ ..................... { 128 

Relative Pronouns,. ..:.................................... 146 

Adjective Pronouns,. . . . 156 

Tense,. 176 

Voice, .' 193 

Mode, 198 

Conjugations, 229 

Conjunctions, „ .262 

Punctuation, 273 

Figurative Language,. 283 

Letter Writing, \ . . . .293 




^c%$. 




feg| 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



PART I. 



THE SENTENCE. 
LESSON I. 

Look about you and name an object that you see. 

Think something of this object and be ready to tell me your thought. 

I do not yet know your thought. Where is it ? 

Tell your thought to me by using words. 

You have used words to tell what? * 

Name an object on the street. Think something of it. 

If you are thinking something of it, what have you in your mind ? 
Where is your thought of this object ? Tell me your thought by using 
words. The words you have used tell what ? 

Think something of birds. Since you are thinking of birds, you 
have what in your mind ? What can you use to tell your thought. 

Think something of flowers. The thought of the flowers is where ? 
Tellme your thought. What have you used to tell your thought ? 

Think something of the sea. Write the words that tell your thought. 
These written words do what ? Speak the words that tell your thought 
of the sea. «. 

Thoughts, then, may be told by spoken or by written words. 

* Note. — The answers to the questions should be complete. Thus, " I have 
used words to tell my thought^ Proper emphasis should be required, as it will 
tend to deepen ideas, to show how thoroughly they are impressed and to improve 
the manner of conversation. Avoid the abrupt emphasis sometimes given. In 
questioning, the teacher should emphasize those words that represent the chief 
links in the chain to a logical conclusion. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Think something of each of the objects for which the following words 
stand. As soon as you have a thought of one, tell it in written words. 
School. Baby. Leaves. Co"fn. Shell. Horse. 

Rhine. Pencils. Mother. Money. Sky. New York. 

Read the words that tell your thought of the first object named 
and say, These words tell my thought of the school 

In the same manner read the words that tell your thoughts of each 
of the other objects. 

The words affirm and express have nearly the same meaning as the 
word tell. Affirm means to tell in such manner as to leave no doubt 
of one's thought. 

Substitute the word affirm for the word tell and again read what 
you have written, saying, These words affirm my thought of the 
school, Qfc. 

I have a thought in my mind. What can I use to tell it to you? 
Words that tell, or affirm, a thought form a sentence. 
A sentence is words that tell, or affirm, a thought. 

What is a sentence ? Words that affirm a thought make what ?* 
Read the first sentence you wrote. Why is it a sentence ? 
Read each one and tell why it is a sentence. 



LESSON II. 

Wherever people are, thoughts are always forming in 
their minds. Thoughts are connected ideas. The senses 
are aids to the mind in gaining ideas. Ideas of form, 
color, size and movement come through seeing. Through 
hearing, come ideas of the sweetness, the harshness, the 
length and the pitch of sounds. Ideas of sweetness, 
sourness and bitterness are . given by taste. The senses 

*Note. — There is great advantage in presenting questions and definitions in'* 
several forms. We master an idea more thoroughly when we approach it from 
different directions. The teacher should so vary her questions as to demand 
varied answers regarding one subject. The repetition in this work is intentional. 



the sentence: 9 

of feeling and smelling give other ideas. All persons 
whose minds and senses are right, are continually receiv- 
ing ideas and forming them into thoughts. They show 
these to one another by the expression of the face, by 
gesture and by words, but, chiefly by the use of spoken 
and written sentences. Books are made up of sentences. 
Sermons, lectures and conversations are collections of 
sentences that express the thoughts of speakers and 
writers to hearers and readers. 

Language is the expression of thoughts and feelings. 

Use gesture language that will express joy ; a desire for a friend 
to approach ; a desire for him to be seated. 

Use the language by which the face expresses sorrow ; gladness ; 
anger ; surprise. 

By means of a sentence, express a thought that your mind has 
formed by help of the eye ; the ear ; the tongue ; the nose ; the 
nerves of feeling. 

Since sentences tell our thoughts — are, in fact, word- 
pictures of them — it is easy to see that clear, strong, 
beautiful and true sentences can be spoken and written 
only when the thought is clear, strong, beautiful and true. 

In all our work in this book, we must aim to have our 
thoughts just right, then to make our sentences represent 
them correctly.* 

Write two sentences about objects in the garden. 

" " kitchen. 
" " parlor. 
" " forest. 
" " body. 
" " mountains. 
Each sentence affirms what ? To show me your thought, you have 
used what ? 

*Note. — The teacher should allow time for the thought to form clearly in the 
mind of the pupil hefore she demands or allows its expression. In this way true 
mental growth will be attained. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 

LESSON III. 

James is erect. Is James erect? How erect James is ! 
James, sit erect. What a terrible fire visited Chicago ! 
Was Chicago visited by a terrible fire? Extinguish the 
fire. How beautiful the rain drops are ! Is Nellie's dress 
blue ? Write the letter now. What wretchedness comes 
from the use of strong drink ! Oh, do not use wine ! 
How mangled the bodies are ! Take them up tenderly. 
Who comes here? The violets love the sunny bank. 
The cowslip loves the lea. Is Massachusetts south of 
Vermont? Oh, wretched man that I am! Who can 
gather apples ? How sad that he is dead ! 

Examine the above sentences. Why is each a sentence ? Read 
as they should be spoken, the ones that show that the writer was ex- 
claiming with admiration. Those that exclaim with horror. With 
pity. 

Read those that state facts. Write two sentences that state facts. 
" " " ask questions. " " " " inquire. 

" " " command. " " " " command. 

" " " entreat. " " " " entreat. 

" " " exclaim. " " " " exclaim. 

A declarative sentence is one that simply states. 

An interrogative sentence is one that asks a question. 

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses sur- 
prise, sudden or great joy, or contempt. 

An imperative sentence is one that commands or 
entreats. 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES. II 

Examine the sentences at the first part of this lesson and observe 
the punctuation marks used at the close of each. 

For the four kinds of sentences, how many different marks are 
used ? Give their names. 

The period is used after what kind of sentence ? 

The interrogation point is used after what kind of sentence ? 

The exclamation point is used after what kind of sentence ? 

Properly punctuate the following and state the reason for making 
the changes. 

The child's voice can be heard through the darkness and 
the rain ? What a sorry voice ! One would fancy tears were 
in his eyes, even though the song he sings be bright and 
gay! Where is his home. Has he a sick mother watch- 
ing for the coming of her boy. Possibly, his best home is 
the street and his best friend, the little violin he plays? 
Poor fellow. Speak a pleasant word to him' A smile 
may warm his heart ! 



LESSON IV. 

Think with admiration of the sun. The air. The rain. Use sen- 
tences to affirm these thoughts of admiration. 

Think with pity of a soldier. A beggar. An old horse. Write 
sentences to express these thoughts. 

TJdnk of four things you need. Write four sentences that will 
ask for those things. 

Write two sentences expressing a command of an officer to his 
men. Two of a merchant to his clei-ks. Two of a housekeeper to 
her daughters. Three of a father to his children. 

Use sentences that state something of the lungs. Of newspapers. 
Of Boston. Of sidewalks. Of flower petals.* 

Classify the following sentences. Give the reason for your class- 
ification. 

Whom should I fear ? Continue to be kind. In the 
next room, is a mocking-bird crowing like a rooster. Now 

*Note. — In writing upon the board or upon your slates, have the arrangement, 
spelling, punctuation and penmanship as perfect as your thought of these things is. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



he whistles like a boy. How sweet his notes are ! Dick- 
ey-bird, whistle Yankee Doodle for us. Do you miss the 
warmth of the Southern sun ? Why not be brave and do 
that which we know is right ? Come, let us go now. 
What good do you hope for by doing what is right ? I 
shall grow better and happier as I grow older. What if 
you do wrong ? I shall grow worse as I grow older. 

What is a sentence? 

Name the different kinds of sentences. Dehne each. 

Give an example of each. 

The period belongs to which kind ? 

The interrogation mark belongs to which kind ? 

The exclamation mark belongs to which kind? 

We express our thoughts to those present and to those absent by 
means of what ? 

Written sentences are used where ? 

Spoken sentences are used where ? 

Which are first in time and importance, — good thoughts or good 
sentences ? 

Combine the words in the following columns into written sen- 
tences. Let the four classes of sentences be represented. 



Discovered. 


Hanging. 


Sheep. 


Robin. 


Indians. 


Represents. 


Grass. 


Tree. 


Columbus. 


Wall. 


Flock. 


Nest. 


Fruits. 


Alps. 


Leather. 


Clear. 


Friendly. 


Picture. 


Mutton. 


Favorite. 


Ships. 


Clouds. 


Feeding. 


Male. 


Morning. 


Flowers. 


Oaks. 


Papers. 


Beans. 


Night. 


Home. 


Singing. 


Fish. 


Children. 


Exercise. 


Health. 



Let each pupil in the class speak a sentence containing one of the 
above words. 

Example. I love the morning. Morning is the time for work. 
Birds sing in the morning. In the morning, flowers wear jewels. 



SIMPLE SUBJECT.* 

LESSON V. 

Blood circulates. 

Why is this a sentence? It expresses what that is in the mind? 

Of what real thing is something affirmed? 

Answer in full. Thus, Something is affirmed of the real blood. The answer 
may be varied ; thus, Something is affirmed of the object blood. 

What word represents that real thing ? 
Is anything affirmed of the word blood ? 

What word represents the object of which circulation is affirmed? 
(Full answer.) 

With the last answer in mind, tell what the word blood represents. 

The apple grew. 

Why is this a sentence ? Of what real object is growth affirmed? 
What word represents that real thing ? 
Is growth affirmed of the word apple ? 

What word represents the real object of which something is af- 
firmed. (Full answer.) 

Remembering the last answer, tell what the word apple represents. 

Brave soldiers fight. 

The teacher will please ask similar questions regarding this sen- 
tence. Conclude by asking the following: Then, what does the 
word soldiers represent? 

Light travels fast. 

What word represents the object of which something is said ? 
(Full answer.) 

*Note — In the following lesson, demand complete answers to the questions. 
The pupils, in studying, must form the habit of thinking the answers out in full ; 
then they will more easily and more thoroughly get the idea intended to be 
taught. There are times when a multitude of words obscures an idea. Usually, 
short, well chosen sentences, instead of single words, tend to impress and to ren- 
der clear and distinct, the special point in hand. 

13 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The word light represents what? 

Fish have gills. 

Of what real things is something affirmed ? 

What word represents that of which having gills is affirmed ? 

To sing is pleasant. 

What words represent that of which pleasantness is affirmed ? 

The words to sing represent what ?* 

In the following sentences, read the smallest number of words 
representing those things of which something is told, or affirmed, 
each time saying what the word does. 

Mary writes. 

Answer thus : The word Mary is the smallest number of words 
representing that of which writing is affirmed ; or, The word 
Mary is the smallest number of words representing the object of 
which something is affirmed. 

John skates. Doves coo. Lions roar. Bathing is 
necessary. The green leaves are beautiful. The bird is 
singing sweetly. Henry loves his sister. The knife is 
made of steel. Clear, cold water flows through the pipes. 
Our sweet, little sister is learning to walk. James is 
teaching her. God is love. Honesty is the best policy. 
A black-walnut bracket hangs on the nail. Salmon P. 
Chase died in May, 1873. Is Chicago a large city? Is 
learning power ?f 

In the preceding examples, you have selected the 
smallest number of words that represents the object of 
which something is affirmed. 

*Note — Remembering the answer to the preceding question, the pupil will be 
able to give the proper reply to the last. 

tNoTE.~The teacher should see that the pupil changes the answer to suit the 
change in the sentences. The object which, the objects which, those things 
which, that which, that thing which, are all forms which are right in certain 
cases. It is the teacher's duty and pleasure to quicken the child's perception of 
the right and the wrong forms, thus making each lesson do its proper work in 
giving additional knowledge of our mother tongue. By this means we combine 
practice with precept. 



SIMPLE SUBJECT. I 5 

The smallest number of words representing that of which 
something is affirmed, is the simple subject. 

The simple subject is the smallest number of words 
represe?iting that of which something is affirmed. 

Find the simple subject in each of the sentences on the preceding 
page, and tell why it is the simple subject. 

Supply subjects to the following. How do you know each one is 
a simple subject? 

was discovered in 1492. were generals. 

was called the father of his country. are 



ripe in June. are most beautiful in October. 

are the lungs of plants. will be subdued. 

fought with bows and arrows. — wrote 

Hamlet. plays Hamlet well. Will come ? 

was first found in Virginia. How old is the 

? was more feared than loved. 

is bounded on the east by the Atlantic. is the 

longest river in the world. are low lands between 

hills or mountains. 





SIMPLE PREDICATE. 
LESSON VI. 

Corals grow slowly. 

What is the simple subject of this sentence ? Why ? Think of the 
corals. What do they do? What word represents the act? What 
word affirms it ? What word represents and affirms something of 
corals ? 

Birds build nests in spring. 

What kind of sentence is this? Why? What is its simple sub- 
ject? Why? What act do the birds do in spring? What word 
represents and also affirms the act ? 

The boys are clerks. 

This sentence shows that the writer is thinking of whom ? What 
does he think of them ? What word i-epresents what the boys are ? 
How many and what words represent and affirm what they are ? 

The maples are swaying in the wind. 

What words represent and affirm something of the maples ? What 
word represents those objects of which swaying is affirmed? Then 
what of the sentence is this word ? What words represent and affirm 
something of that which the simple subject represents ? 

Jack Frost will color their leaves. 
Ask similar questions about this sentence. 
They will be beautiful in October. 

This sentence shows that the leaves are to possess what quality ? 
What word represents the quality ? How many and what words rep- 
resent and affirm its future possession ? What words represent and 
affirm something that is thought of those things represented by the 
simple subject? 

16 



SIMPLE PREDICATE. 1 7 

Our first President was Washington. 

This sentence shows the identity of whom ? What is its subject? 
Speak the words representing and affirming something that is thought 
of that which the simple subject represents. 

John is a carpenter. The metal is gold. The busy- 
bee gathers honey. The beautiful, green leaves dance in 
the light. The good man will be loved by all. Soldiers 
fight bravely for their country. The sun warms. We 
shall be seen. Willie skates in January. 

Question about these sentences. 

In each one, read the smallest number of words that represents 
and affirms something that is thought of that represented by the sim- 
ple subject. (Full answer in each case.) 

The smallest number of words representing and affirming 
something that is thought of that represented by the simple 
subject is the simple predicate. 

What is the simple predicate ? Read the sentences in which one 
word both represents and affirms something. In which two words are 
required to represent and affirm something. One in which three are 
required. 



LESSON VII. 

Write sentences of which the following words will be the simple 
predicates. 

lies. is building was betrayed. 



draws. crossed. 



was seen. is 

brave, -were pupils. conquered. 

may be ill. am thoughtful. will have been 

dead. will have ploughed. are friends. 

are cowardly. 

Write a sentence that has no simple predicate. Have you clone 
it? Why not? Write a sentence that has no simple subject 
expressed or understood. Have you succeeded? From your un- 



15 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

successful attempts, what do you think the essential parts of a sentence 

are ? 

The necessary parts of every sentence are the simple 
subject and the simple predicate. Sometimes the sub- 
ject may be understood, but the predicate must always 
be expressed. 

Name the simple subjects and the simple predicates in the follow- 
ing sentences, and, as you read each, tell why it is simple subject or 
simple predicate. 

The street is very wide. The snow-birds eat flesh. 
Worms are food for birds. Some birds love grain. Hon- 
ey is made in summer. Rome was not built in a day. 
Character is not formed in a day. The ponies are black. 
Our friends are foreigners. Those trees are evergreens. 
Are oranges tropical fruit ? Will they grow north of 
Washington ? How weary you look ! March. Look to 
the guns. Oh ! do not go. Chromos are good substitutes 
for paintings. The meeting will have ended before noon. 
Hawthorne wrote "The Scarlet Letter." Exercise 
should be given to every muscle. 



LESSON VIII. 

Which is lacking in each of the following, — simple subject or 
simple predicate ? Supply words to complete the sentences. 

is bounded north by Massachusetts. Rover 

a good . The bureau black. The 



boiler at four o'clock. Small, green on 

the shrub. James, . Palms grow . Old 

by all. Columbus by Isa- 
bella. joy was great. A is words that 

a -. An imperative . The period 

at the close of a . run. march. 



SIMPLE PREDICATE. 19 

Which of the following are sentences? Why? 
Read the simple subjects and the simple predicates. 
Which of the following are not sentences ? Why not ? 

Continue to follow the train. Several bright, noble 
children going to school. The long, winding lane finally 
ends in a beautiful pasture. Green grass making a carpet 
fit for a king. Oh, yes, understanding it so well. Buy 
me a bunch of blue ribbon. Would you be erect ? Then 
walk with the chin drawn in. Grand mountains with 
summits fairly kissing the sky ! The man sitting in the 
cage with the lion and the tiger, the crowd cheering, the 
wise saying, " How foolish !" The mother not heeding the 
danger, saw only her child. 

What is a sentence ? 

What is a simple predicate ? 

What is a simple subject? 

What are the necessary parts of a sentence ? 

Name the four kinds of sentences. 

Write four words, making a sentence of them. Write four words 
in such manner as not to form a sentence. Properly use (.), (?), (!). 

Write four sentences about the tree you like best ; five about 
playing ball; five about wheat ; five about squirrels; four about 
men's work ; six about women's work. 

Underline the simple subjects and predicates of your sentences.* 

*Note. — Several lessons may profitably be devoted to the last exercise. Not 
only will the pupils enjoy hearing their mates read their sentences, but grer.t ben- 
efit will be derived from mutual criticism. From what varied directions different 
ones will approach the same subject ! How refined the sentences of some will be, 
how coarse those of others ! These differences, as well as those pertaining more 
particularly to Grammar, should be kindly noted by the teacher. 




"V^t- 



COMPLEX SUBJECT. 

LESSON IX. 

Birds fly. 

What kind of sentence is this ? Of how many parts does it consist ? 
To the subject, add a word that will show the size of the birds. 
Add another word to show their color. 

Boys were drowned. 

To the subject of the above, add a word to indicate the number of 
boys who were drowned. Add another word to show their national- 
ity. Still another to indicate their moral character. 

Boxes are plenty. 

To the subject, add words to express the number, size and material 
of the boxes. 

Men gain riches. 

To the subject, add a word that will convey an idea of the kind of 
men who get rich. First, use a word to show that the riches came 
honorably. What word would indicate that dishonest means were 
used to get them ? 

The carpet was bought at Field's. 

To the subject, add words to show that much money was paid for 
the carpet ; that it covers a large floor; that its colors are pleasing ; 
that it produces an agreeable sensation when the foot touches it. 

Two, small, glass vases were filled with violets 
Read the simple subject and the simple predicate of the above sen- 
tence. 

The word two expresses what idea ? The word small shows what 
quality of the vases ? You know their material from what word ?* 

*Note. — The answers to the questions should be complete, even if more time 
be consumed than at first seems advisable. When ratid thought is the aim, 
abbreviated answers may be accepted. 

20 



COMPLEX SUBJECT. 2 I 

Beautiful birds flew past the window. 

From the above sentence, you know the birds had what quality? 
What quality belonged to the birds ? (Full answer.) 

Brilliant, crimson clouds float in the west. 

What two qualities are possessed by the clouds ? 

Since the brilliancy and the color belong to the clouds — are asso- 
ciated with them — it seems right that the three words, brilliant, crim- 
son and clouds should be associated. The real things are connect- 
ed, and, naturally, their word pictures are connected, also. Do you 
agree to this ? Does it seem reasonable? What seems reasonable? 

Because the brilliancy and the crimson color belong to 
the clouds, and because the words brilliant and crimson 
describe the objects represented by the word clouds, we say 
the words brilliant and crimson belong to the word clouds. 

Five, strong, gray, carriage horses were sold at auction. 

Name the simple subject. Name the simple predicate. How 
many words have been added to the simple subject to express some 
idea of the horses ? Which added word indicates number ; Which, 
color ? Which, condition ? Which, the use to which the horses are 
put ? These four words are associated with what other word ? Ought 
they to be ? Why ? And we may say they belong- to what word ? 

In the following sentences, read the simple subjects. Read the 
simple subjects and the parts that belong to them. 

My brown cloak is lost.* Six, pretty, yellow chickens 
have just broken from the shell. An honest, upright man 
scorns a mean act. That slow, feeble step indicates age. 
Her beautiful, gray hair was a crown of glory. A moun- 
tainous state is generally beautiful. The round, glass 
inkstand is broken. 

The simple subject and the parts that belong to it, form 
the complex subject. 

The complex subject is the simple subject and the 
parts that belong to it. 

*Note. — The recitation should be thus ; L ' My brown cloak " is the simple 
subject and the parts that belong to it. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAK 



LESSON X. 



Read the complex subjects of the previous sentences, and state why 
each is complex. 

Write sentences that will contain complex subjects. Let the 
simple subjects be the following words. 

London. Nile. France. Atlantic. 

Home. City. Country. Desert. 

Horse. Sheep. Snake. Paper. 

Write interrogative sentences having complex subjects. Let the 
following words be the simple subjects. 

Fire. Steam. President. Rose. 

Name the simple and the complex subjects of the following. 

The tall, graceful elm is my favorite. The beautiful, 
trembling poplar is yours. The schools of Boston arc 
good. That gold ring is valuable. The manly exercise 
of boating is practiced at Harvard. Webster's Un- 
abridged Dictionary was given to her. 



LESSON XL 

The parts of a sentence should be arranged in such 
manner as to form an agreeable combination. 

In accordance with this rule correct the following. 

I saw beautiful, large, several sheep. The brown, old, 
infirm horse has gone to his long, last rest. The willow 
tall, graceful tree was broken by the east violent wind. 
Our Scotch, honest, young friend has lost his new, much 
valued book. My invalid young cousin is troubled with 
much violent, rapid heart -beats. The yellow, clear- 
warm sunshine will ripen surely the purple, delicious 
grapes. 



COMPLEX SUBJECT, 23 

In the following, to each subject of the first three sentences, add one 
word that will describe the object it represents. 

To each subject of the second three sentences, add two Avoids that 
will describe the object represented by it. 

To each of the next three, add three words. 

To each of the last three, add four words. 

Paint improves houses. Cars carry freight. Dresses 
are durable. Men are despised. Shoes should be worn 
in the winter. Horses were sold for one thousand dol- 
lars. Boards are good for kindlings. Paper is best for 
copy books. Alps are in Switzerland. Violets are loved 
by all. Girl stood best in her class. Soldiers deserted 
just before the battle. 

What kind of subjects had the sentences before you changed 
them ? What kind have they now ? Are the newly formed senten- 
ces so arranged as to be pleasant to your ear? 

Water. Baby. Snow. Cars. Deer. 

Spring. Prairies. Greeley. Washington. Ink. 

Let one pupil speak a sentence that contains one of the above 
Words used as simple subject. The next use the word in the same 
way, but adding to it some part that will belong to the subject. Con- 
tinue the addition of parts till the ingenuity of the class is exhausted. 
Thus, Water flows. Water from mountains flows. Clear water 
flews from mountains. Clear, cold water flows from mountains. 
Clear, cold, sparkling water from mountains flows.* 

*Note.— The interest excited by this exercise may be equal to that felt in a 
game, It is a game of words. 



COMPLEX PREDICATE. 

LESSON XII. 

Birds fly. 

What kind of subject has this sentence ? What kind of predicate 
has it ? To the simple predicate, add a part that will show the place of 
flying. Add another part to show Planner of flying. 

Hunters shoot. 

What is the predicate of the above ? To it, add a part to show 
what they shoot. Add a part to indicate the instrument used in 
shooting. Add another part to tell the time. 

John came. 

To the predicate, add a part to indicate time ; a part to indicate 
tvith whom ; a part to indicate ptirpose ; a part to indicate how. 

Farmers plant. 

To the predicate, add a part to show what; to show place ; to 
show time ; to show why. 

Last night, the angry driver struck his horse on the 
head with a club, for refusing to walk over the burning 
rubbish. 

Name the simple predicate. When did the driver strike? What 
did he strike? Why? Where ? What instrument did he use? 

Ask similar questions about the next sentences. 

In the school-room, the girl wears a blue ribbon on her 

hair. The picture was taken at the gallery, yesterday, 

by the artist. His arm was injured very badly last 

August, by the machine. The frightened animals tore 

dirough the street at a rapid rate. By kind acts, the man 

gained the good will of all. 

24 



COMPLEX PREDICATE. 25 

The strong girl walks gracefully. 

What word describes the walking? Grace belongs to what act? 
Then the walking has what? 

Since grace belongs to the act of walking, it is natural 
that the word walks and the word gracefully should be 
associated — the real things being associated, their word 
representatives also are associated. We say the word 
gracefully belongs to the word walks > because it represents 
that which belongs to the walking. 

The bay horse trotted finely on the street yesterday. 

Name the simple predicate. Think of the act of trotting. What 
quality had it? What word represents that quality? What time 
was connected with the act? The act had what place? The act of 
trotting had three things connected with it. What are they? Time, 
place and manner belonged to what act? What word represents the 
act ? Which words represent what belonged to the act ? Then, 
what parts of the sentence should belong to the predicate, trotted? 

In the following sentences, name the simple predicates. What 
parts represent things that belong to that which the simple predi- 
cates represent? 

The dog barks fiercely. Chase planned carefully. 
The north wind blows violently to-night. He earnestly 
sought the passage. The boat will come to-day. He 
hoped to go. Last night we caught the sea-anemone in 
our hands. Children like fruit. Sir Philip Sidney died 
nobly. The child clapped his hands from joy. 

In the above sentences, what parts belong to the simple predicate' 
Why should they belong to the predicate? What do the parts indi- 
cate ? 

In the following sentences, read the simple predicates and the 
parts that belong to them. 

Virginia was settled in 1607.* Our little sister is tend- 
ing her doll to-day. The cat sleeps quietly in the basket. 

*Note. — Answer thus, *" JFas settled in iboj is the simple predicate and the 
parts that belong to it." 



26 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The first battle of the Revolution was fought at Lexing= 
ton, in 1774. He is very happy. The farmer is plough- 
ing his garden to day. The poor lady sits by the fire all 
day ; she cannot work in the fields. Come directly. 
Speak distinctly. 

The simple predicate and the parts that belong to it, 
form the complex predicate. 

The complex predicate is the simple predicate and the 
parts that belong to it. 



LESSON XIII. 

Read the complex predicates of the previous sentences, and state 
why each is complex. What idea is expressed by each part be- 
longing to the predicates? 

Write sentences containing complex predicates, using the follow- 
ing words as the simple predicates. 



Come. 


Recovers. 


Am ill. 


Sings. 


Sailed. 


Are kind. 


Wrote. 


Painted. 


Were young. 


Travels. 


Understands. 


Was killed. 


Will graduate 


. Will be seen. 


Will study. 


Ran. 


Sees. 


Rolls. 


Flies. 


Writes. 


Fought. 


Preaches. 


Coughs. 


Moves. 


Traveled. 


Liberated. 


Discovered. 





Let one pupil speak a sentence containing one of the above words 
used as simple predicate. The next, employ the word in the same 
way, but add to it a part that will belong to the predicate. The 
third, add another part. Example: James ran. James ran rapidly. 
James ran rapidly towards town. James ran rapidly towards town, 
for the docior. 




PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE 
ELEMENTS. 

LESSON XIV. 

Honest, industrious men should be respected by alL 
Name the simple subject. What words belong to it? What is the 
simple predicate ? What parts belong to it ? Which could be omitted 
and still leave a sentence — the simple predicate and simple subject, or 
the parts that belong to them? Then what are the necessary, or 
principal, parts of this sentence? 

Another name for part is element. 

What art the principal elements of the above sentence? 

A quiet, thoughtful, blind girl waits constantly at the 
door. 

What is the simple subject ? Why ? What is the simple predicate ? 
Why? 

Read the elements belonging to the subject. Those belonging to 
the simple predicate. Read the fewest words that would make a 
sentence. What elements have you read? Can you omit these and 
still have a sentence? Then, what are the principal elements of this 
sentence? What are the elements that belong to the principal? Do 
the principal elements belong to any other elements? 

Subordinate elements are those that belo?ig to other 
elements. 

They are called subordinate because they are under in 
order, or in importance. 

An element is subordinate to the part to which it 
belongs. 

What are the the subordinate elements in the following sentences? 
To what is each subordinate? What idea does each express? 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Four, beautiful, Swedish children came to America 
last year. They had lost their father. They hoped to 
find work in this country. Their aged mother remained 
in the " Fatherland." One of them, Maria, had a sweet 
voice. She sang to little Helen. Helen was the baby. 
Baby had blue eyes, and light, curling hair. She loved 
Maria very dearly. 

In the following sentence, which element expresses appearance ? 
Condition? Number? Color? Place? 

Seven beautiful birds flew through the air. 

Read the principal .elements of the following. How many ele- 
ments are subordinate to the simple subject? How many are sub- 
ordinate to the simple predicate? Which one indicates condition of 
the friend? Which shows age? My gives what idea? 

My old, infirm friend sits at his desk. 

Very graceful, white flowers grew in the field last summer. 

In the above sentence, how many elements belong to the simple 
predicate? Because they belong to an element, what are they? 

What word shows color of the flowers? General appearance? 
Gives a hint of the amount, or degree, of grace ? 

Since this word tells about the grace, to what word do you think 
it is subordinate? To what word does it belong? 

The grand elm in the park was struck by lightning last 
summer. 

To tree, the simple subject, are added what elements? What do 
they express? 

To was struck, the simple predicate, are added v. hat elements? 
What do they show?* 

You have been thinking of the elements of sentences, 
and naming the principal and subordinate elements. 
The division of a sentence into its elements is analysis. 
Analysis is the division of a sentence into its elements. 

*Note. — The teacher will need to multiply sentences and questions upon 
them. The number needed will depend upon the class ; but varied repetition is 
necessary in all grades. 



PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE ELEMENTS. 



LESSON XV. 

What is a sentence? What are the principal parts? 

What is an element of a sentence? What is meant by a subord- 
inate element. How do you determine to what an element is sub- 
ordinate ? How do you determine if one element belongs to another? 

Name five ideas that elements added to the subject may express. 
Name three ideas that elements subordinate to the predicate may 
express. 

Define complex subject ; complex predicate ; simple subject ; 
simple predicate. 

Write a sentence containing three subordinate elements added to 
the subject, and two subordinate elements added to the predicate. 

Write a sentence with the following elements in it. 

Of beauty. Three. White. Graceful. To-day. 

Include the following in another sentence. 
South America. Wind. Warm. Perpetual. In a ship. 

Write an interrogative sentence containing the following elements. 
All. Patient. Laborious. Pleasure. . Study. 

Write an imperative sentence containing the following elements. 
Aimless. Thoughtless. Short. Soon. 

To what do the subordinate elements belong? 




FORMS OF ELEMENTS. 

LESSON XVI. 

The Boston boy plays correctly. 

The boy from Boston plays correctly. 

The boy who lives in Boston, plays correctly. 

In the above examples, the element, Boston, tells what of the hoy? 
The element, from Boston, tells what of the boy? The element, whc 
lives in Boston, tells what of the boy ? 

The noble man is here. 
The man of nobility is here. 
The man who is noble, is here. 

The elements, noble, of nobility and who is noble, describe what 
object? To what is each subordinate? 

The lady sings correctly. 

The lady sings with correctness. 

In the above sentences, the italicised elements are subordinate to 
what? What do they express? 

From the above examples you see that, — 

The same idea may be expressed in different ways, or 
forms. 

Write sentences containing the following subordinate elements. 
Good. Of goodness. Who is good. 

Talented. Of talent. Who is talented. 

Educated. Of education. Who is educated. 
City. From the city Who lives in the city. 

Express the following ideas in different ways, or by different forms. 

Goodness. Virtue. Strength. Wealth. 

Good nature. Generosity. Skill. Dishonesty. 

Fruitless. Ripe. Movement. Indolence. 

30 



FORMS OF ELEMENTS. 



LESSON XVII. 



In the following sentences, change the forms of the subordinate 
elements without changing the ideas that they express.* 

He ran from fear. Isles of green dot the St. Lawrence. 
The man of wealth has the power of doing great good. 
The poor man may be a joy and a blessing to all who know 
him. Do you pass just criticism? The goats of the 
mountains climb easily over the rocks. The falling rain 
will be welcomed by every leaf and flower. The faithful 
dog deserves a bone. The parrot's toes are not arranged 
like the hen's. The reckless man, thinking only of pres- 
ent enjoyment, rushes towards future ruin. Having been 
educated by noble souls, nobility clung to him through 
life. They that have no fear, may have no perception. 
Before adopting a fashion, ask if it be sensible and be- 
coming. Traits of character that are disagreeable in 
the young, may be strong points in the adult. The many- 
eyed insects see in different directions without moving 
the eyes. Two-eyed man sees in many directions by 
moving his eyes. 

*Note. — This exercise is very important, tending to develope facility of ex- 
pression. The pupil should be encouraged to ring all the changes possible. 
The results reached by different children, should be compared and criticised 
by class and teacher. Sentences, widely different in excellence, may be 
slowly read by the tsacher, the pupils listening attentively, then pronouncing 
judgment upon them. Sentences which are nearly alike maybe read and criti- 
cised in the same manner. The slight variations in language which do, and which 
do not. change the idea, should be noticed. A certain amount of freedom with 
the sentences may, occasionally, be permitted and encouraged. Variations which 
slightly change the meaning, but greatly improve the strength or the beauty, are 
to be particularly observed, and the attention of the class called to them. By 
means of these exercises, the car will be quickened and the judgment made nice 
and discriminating. The pupil who forms the habit of listening well to others' 
words, will soon come to hear and criticise his own. In most classes there will be 
some who, by a little encouragement, will expand the thought of a : single sentence 
into a lengthy paragraph. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
LESSON XVIII. 



Observe the manner in which the following sentence is analyzed. 

Five boys were drowned yesterday. 

These words affirm a thought; therefore, they form a sentence. 
Sive boys is the simple subject and the part that belongs to it ; there- 
fore, it is the complex subject. Were drowned yesterday is the simple 
predicate and- the part that belongs to it ; hence, it is the complex 
predicate. To boys, the simple subject, belongs five, an element 
showing number. To were drowned, the simple predicate, is added 
yesterday, an element showing time. 

The analysis of a sentence may be expressed to the eye by means 
of figures, or diagrams, thus : — 
( boys | Five 
/ were drowned | yesterday. 

Four, large, courageous men captured the bear yester- 
day in the woods. 

These words affirm a thought ; hence, they form a sentence. Four, 
large, courageous men is the simple subject and the parts that be- 
long to it ; therefore, it is the complex subject. Captured t/ie bear 
yesterday in the woods is the simple predicate and the parts that be- 
long to it; hence, it is the complex predicate. To men, the simple 
subject, belong four, large and courageous, elements showing num- 
ber, size and character. To captured, the simple predicate, are 
added the bear, yesterday and in the woods, elements showing what 
was captured, time and place. 

This sentence may be placed in a diagram, thus : — 
Four 
large 

courageous 
bear | the 
| captured in woods ] the 
[_ - yesterday. 

32 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 7,$ 

My good friend Annie found her way easily. 

•These words affirm a thought; therefore, they are a sentence. My 
good friend Annie is the simple subject and the parts that belong to 
it ; hence, it is the complex subject. Found her way easily is the 
simple predicate and the parts that belong to it ; therefore it is the 
complex predicate. To friend, the simple subject, are added my, 
good and Annie, elements showing possession, moral character and 
identity. To found, the simple predicate, belong her way and easily, 
elements showing what and manner. To way belongs her, an ele- 
ment showing possession. 

The sentence may be put in diagram, thus : — 

f . \ M y • 

| friend good 
! I Annie 

I found I wa y I her 

(_ | easily. 

General Rule for arranging in diagram. Draw a 
brace. In the upper half place the simple subject, and 
in the lower, the simple predicate. At the right of each, 
separated by a vertical line, write its limiting elements. 

Analyze the following sentences in the same manner, by word and 
by diagram. 

The parts of a sentence may be variously transposed, but, by re- 
membering the definitions of simple subject and simple predicate, 
and, by carefully studying what words answer to the definitions, you 
will have little difficulty in analyzing. 

Five, large, red apples grew on the tree. The blue 
fringed gentian grows by streams. It blooms in Septem- 
ber. The rich, brown nuts fell to the ground when they 
were ripe. 

When they were ripe tells what ? Then, to what word should it be 
added ? 

John, the old sailor, still longs for the sea. Theodore 
sings in the church on Sunday. Our new, black pony 
trots rapidly. Carl Zerrahn, the great musician, leads 
choruses grandly. 



NOUNS. 
LESSON XIX. 

Harriet Hosmer, the artist, works in marble. She has 
spent years in Italy, studying the works of great masters. 
Rosa Bonheur loves animals. She paints them so well, 
that they seem alive. Have you seen her Horse Fair? 
How I should like to see the original ! The faithful 
teacher never forgets his pupils. The Alps are moun- 
tains in Europe. Mount Blanc is the highest peak. 

Why are the above sentences ? Classify each one. Find the sim- 
ple subject and the simple predicate of each. Look carefully at the 
first sentence and pronounce the words that are names of objects. 
Write them. These words are names of what ? How many objects 
in the second sentence are represented by names? Write them. 
Write the names of objects represented in the other sentences. These 
Words are what of the objects? 

Names of objects are nouns. 

What is each word you have written in the column ? Why ? What 
is a noun ? 

Write two sentences, each containing a noun for subject, and a 
noun added to the simple predicate to show what. 

Write two sentences in which each simple subject shall have a 
noun belonging to it used to identify, or point out, the object which 
is represented by the subject. 

Write two in which a noun shall be in an element showing time ; 
showing place ; showing agency ; showing material ; showing pos- 
session, 

Fill the following blanks with nouns. 

James is a . Thomas, my was — . , 

34 . 



nouns. 35 

the , will be . In what was born ? 

Mr. Camp's died in . The rose blooms in 

the in , if the are not too numerous. The 

eat . surrendered to Gen. m 1865. 

A is the of an . The interrogation 



is used at the of an interrogative . 

How do you know you have filled the blanks with nouns ? Look 
at the sentences you have completed by noun additions, and name 
the simple subjects and predicates of each. Find the elements be- 
longing to each subject and each predicate. What does each denote? 



REVIEW. 

Define language ; sentence ; declarative sentence ; interrogative 
exclamatory; imperative; simple subject ; simple predicate , complex 
subject ; complex predicate ; subordinate elements ; analysis. 

Give an Illustration of different forms of the same element. 

Analyze the following sentences. 

Stone pillars, tall and graceful, support the roof of the 
building. Coming events cast their shadows before. 
Learning, by study must be won. The evergreen stem 
winter's power derides. We will go to town when the 
bridge is done. The tree that stands in the park, is a 
maple. 

That stands in the park tells what ? To what does it belong ? 

Men who will not prevent crime, must support it. 

( who 

Men \ .,, . I not 

I will prevent J crime 

I 

[ must support | it. 

When a limiting element contains a subject and a predicate, use 

a brace. Under every connective draw a line. 



PRONOUNS. 

LESSON XX. 

John lost John's book in John's play-yard but John 
found John's book by searching for John's book. 

Do you like this sentence ? Why? How many nouns are there 
in it? Express the same thought in a shorter and pleasanter manner? 
What words have you omitted ? Read the words you have used for 
the nouns. 

Mary is beautiful. Mary's eyes are bright. Mary's 
features are fine and there is an appearance of health 
about Mary. 

What word is repeated ? Why is the word Mary a noun? In 
place of the nouns, use words that will improve the sentence. Pro- 
nounce the word substituted for the nouns. These words are used 
foi what ? 

Pro means for. Since the words he, his, her, and hers are used 
for nouns, and pro means for, what name could be given these words? 

Pronouns are words used for uoiuis. 

What is a pronoun? Name the pronouns in the following. 

John loves his mother. She is fond of him. The 
horses ran, thinking they were in danger. I love you who 
were kind to him. Nathan said unto David : " Thou art 
the man." He saw it before she knew it was approach- 
ing them. They ran to their home for shelter. 

Supply pronouns in the following. 

loveth chasteneth. Whatso- 

- would that men should do to do 



ever - 

also unto . The mountains are hard to climb, but 

36 



PRONOUNS. 37 

having reached tops can see for miles around. 

To the east lies the village of Berlin, with church- 
spires, and wide streets. At feet is New Britian, 

where lives the man is famed for knowledge 

of foreign language. In youth learned the 

blacksmith's trade. soul has ever longed for peace. 

Read doom in the flowers fade and die. 

read pleases . saw Mary and 

brother. did see ? Motionless torrents ! 

Silent cataracts ! made glorious as the gates 

of heaven ? The mountains stand about gates, 

O Jerusalem ! 

The following are the principal pronouns. 

I, mVj me, we, our, ours, us, thou, thy, thine, thee, you, 
your, he, his, him, they, their, them, she, her, it, its, who 
whose, whom, which, what, that. 

Others will be introduced at the proper time. 

Write sentences, using such of these as you can as subjects. Use 
such as you can in the predicates of sentences. Write interrogative 
and imperative sentences using such as you can as subjects. Write 
sentences, using such as you can as elements showing ownership. 




ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 
LESSON XXI. 

Those silvery leaves, that tremble in the wind, are poplar. 
John, the old sailor s friend, gave him many, fine books of 
poetry to read. The beautiful, white water-lily lay still 
upon the clear stream. 

Name the nouns in these sentences. Look at the italicised elements 
in the first sentence, and tell what real things they describe. What 
words represent these objects? Then, to what do the italicised 
elements belong ? What term is given to an element that belongs to 
another? What kind of word is leaves? The subordinate ele- 
ments, then, belong to what ? In the second sentence, what ele- 
ments tell of friend? What of John ? Of books ? Friend^ John 
and books are what kind of words ? Then, the elements belong to 
what? Name the nouns in the third sentence. What elements 
belong to the first noun, and to the second. Then, these three sen- 
tences show that elements may belong to what class of words? 

An element belonging to a noun is an adjective ele- 
ment. 

What are adjective elements? In the sentences just studied, 
find the adjective elements that consist of one word. Of two. Of 
more than two. What does each element denote? Name the adjec- 
tive elements in the following sentences. To what does each belong ? 
What idea does each express? 

White clouds float in the air on hot, summer days. 
The large, rough clouds look like sheep's wool. The 
fragrant arbutus grows in sheltered nooks among' the 
hills of New England. Its white-and-pink petals show 
themselves as soon as the snow-drifts are gone. The 
gray, moss-grown rocks, firm and enduring, are emblems 

38 



ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 39 

of God. The kind, generous, patient physician can do 
much to aid suffering men and women. 

A few questions regarding the adjective elements, — questions that serve to 
impress upon the mind the fact that there are realities which correspond to the 
written forms, will greatly aid the pupil and rob the stud}'- of grammar of much 
of its dryness. 

In sentence third the word sheltered appears: what does it des- 
cribe? From your knowledge of New England, what do you think 
shelters the nooks ? At this season of the year what would be found 
here besides arbutus blossoms? The fact that it follows the snow so 
closely, shows it to be what kind of plant? 

A little personification might be introduced : the arbutus might be spoken o 
as brave. 

What kind of sentences are the following ? Why ? Name the 
nouns, pronouns and adjective elements. What do the adjective ele- 
ments denote? Name the other subordinate elements. To what 
words do they belong, and what does each denote ? 

I was sitting in the meadows one day, not long ago, at 
a place where there was a small brook. It was a hot day. 
The sky was very blue, and white clouds, like great 
swans, went floating over it to and fro. Just opposite 
me was a clump of green rushes, -with dark, velvety 
spikes ; and among them, was one single, tall, red cardi- 
nal flower, which was bending over the brook as if to see 
its own beautiful face in the water. But the cardinal did 
not seem vain. The picture was so pretty that I sat a 
long time enjoying it. Suddenly, close to me, two small 
voices began to talk. One voice was shrill. The other, 
which was a little deeper, sounded very positive and 
cross. They were disputing about something ; they said 
the same words over and over again. These were the 
words: — "Katy did." " Katy didn't." " She did." " She 
didn't." " Did." " Didn't." — Susan Coolidgc. 

Write a sentence containing adjective elements describing the 
most beautiful child you know ; the best man you know ; the most 
disagreeable person ; the stream you like ; a disagreeable task ; your 
ideal girl ; your ideal boy. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
LESSON XXII. 

Analyze the following sentences and use the word adjective in 
describing the elements which belong to nouns ; thus, — 

We saw the gray, old man of the mountain. 

These words affirm a thought; hence, they are a sentence. We, is 
the fewest words that represent that of which something is affirmed; 
therefore, it is the simple subject. Sazu the gray, aid man of the 
mountain is the simple predicate and the parts that belong to it; 
hence it is the complex predicate. To saw, the simple predicate, 
belongs the gray, old man of the mountain, an element showing what 
was seen. To man, belong gray, old, and of the mountain, ad- 
jective elements, showing color, age and place. 

Analyze by word and by diagram the following: 

One time, purple flowers grew in an earthen pot. 
Four, proud, prancing pacers drew a fine, new carriage 
on the level, paved street. A beautiful, pink sea-shell 
was found by little Mary on the sandy beach. Four, lit- 
tle, rough, ragged beggar boys are in the cold, icy street. 
A kind, good man has given them some rye bread and 
some cold meat. A tall, graceful girl is exercising her 
strong muscle, by holding her fiery horse/" 

Name the nouns and the pronouns in these sentences. Which are 
adjective elements? Why? Which are simple subjects? Why? 

From these examples you see that nouns and pronouns may be 
what subordinate elements? 

*Note.— If an element be capable of expressing several ideas, discuss it 
thoroughly, and by questions lead the class to see which meaning is probably in- 
tended. If there be no way of deciding this, be generous towards the views ex- 
pressed by pupils ; this will give them courage, and a just self-confidence. The 
word rough, above, may express behavior, dress, or expression of countenance. 

4Q 



ADJECTIVES. 



LESSON XXIII. 



Boy. 



to a boy 
applied, 
is name, 
applied 



river to 
limited, 



What noun is written above? Can this name be given 
in Boston? To a boy in the country? Can it be given, or 
to a boy in England? Can you think of any boy to whom th 
or noun, cannot be applied? Since the noun boy can be 
to any boy, has it a limited, or an unlimited application? 

River. 

What noun is written above? Can you think of any 
which this name may not be applied? lias the noun rivers. 
or has it an unlimited application? 

Trees. 

What noun is written above? Has it a limited, or has it an un- 
limited application ? Why? 

We will place a word before the noun boy ; thus, — 

Good boy. 

Now, to ioJiat\>oy is the noun applied? Has the noun a more, or 
a less limited application titan when it stood alone? What word 
has limited its application? 

I write a word before the noun liver ; thus, — 

Broad river. 

To zvhal river is the noun applied? Has the noun river a lim- 
ited, or has it an unlimited application? What word has limited its 
application ? 

I write four before the noun trees ; thus,— 

Four trees, 



To how many trees is the noun now applied? 
plication has it? What word has limited the 



What kind of ap 
application of ihi 
41 



^2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

noun? Tell me what the words good, broad, and four have done to 
the application of the nouns. 

To the noun liorse,ndd words that will limit its application to an 
object of a certain size and color. 

To the noun nyj, add words that will limit its application to ob- 
jects of a certain color and temperature. 

What of the nouns has been limited by these added words? To 
what do these added words belong? 

Adjectives are words belonging to nouns. They limit 
their application. 

What is an adjective? Adjectives are added to nouns for what 
purpose? 

Name the adjectives in the following sentences, and the ideas 
expressed by them. 

Many, red, brick houses were built by that tall, strong 
Irishman, who wears coarse, woolen garments made by 
his kind, industrious wife. Beautiful, fine, woolen shawls 
are made in Asia. Four, graceful, swaying, white lilies 
are growing on slender stalks in the circular flower bed. 
Much good rye bread is eaten in rocky Connecticut. 
The beloved child is here. The precious, sparkling 
diamond cuts glass. 

In these sentences, find the adjectives that express the following 
ideas. 

Appearance. Quality. Purpose. 

Condition. Proportion Material. 

Color. Form. Size. 

Number. Texture. Taste. 

Nationality. How regarded. 

Movement. Character, 

indefinite number. That same particular one is meant. 

Write sentences on your slates, containing adjectives expressing 
the above ideas. 

Adjectives express other ideas. Can you name any that do? 
Search your reading books and geographies for them. 

Describe the adjectives in the sentences; thus — 

The sick child is patient. 



ADJECTIVES. 43 

The is an adjective belonging to the noun child, which it limits by 
showing that some particular child is meant. Sick is an adjective 
belonging to child, which it limits by showing condition. Patient is 
an adjective belonging to child, which it limits by showing moral 
condition. 



LESSON XXIV. 

In deciding to what word an adjective belongs, think what object it 
describes, and what word represents that object ; then, remember 
that as the quality belongs to its object, so the adjective belongs to 
its noun or pronoun. 

Ask and answer the following four questions about each adjective. 

i. What object does it tell about? 

2. What does it tell? (Color, number, form, &c.) 

3. What word represents that object? 

4. To what word does the adjective belong? 

Large and small streams flow from the great mountains. 
Singing birds fly about the shaded farm-houses. Four, 
soft, brown mice were in the old, woolen hat. That gar- 
den has been cultivated for majiy years. The highest 
trees grow in the densest forests. Those tanned, fisher- 
boys have strong nets. Carl is honest. We are seven. I 
am too idle. The well-known, worn-out topics 0/ conver- 
sation fail to interest us. The great I is the first element 
of an idol. If your hair is red, let it be red ; if it be 
grey, let it remain grey. Fine weather, good sleighing, 
merry company, and ayf^/horse, made the day and the 
journey short. No cutting will make the diamond. Our 
friend was tip right and manly, firm and gentle, prudent and 
honest. Do not turn them away, for they are poor, and 
hungry, and co/d,a.nd friendless. 

In the above examines, what mark separates several adjectives 
used together? What adjectives are used in pairs? What mark 
separates the pairs? 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When two or more adjectives are used together, forming a series, 
a comma should separate them. 

Instead of the comma, the word and, or, or other connector, may- 
be used between the last two adjectives. 

The adjectives may be arranged in pairs, and separated in pairs. 

The adjectives the, an, a, and a class of words called pronominal 
adjectives, are not separated from the adjectives that follow them. 

When the series consists of three or more adjectives, each of which 
is emphatic, a connector and a comma may be used to separate 
them. 

The above rules are applicable to all other classes of words. 

Punctuate the following, — 

John Nathan Anna and Margaret are good earnest 
intelligent strong children You he and I saw the 
mountains valleys rivers and sea as we looked down 
from Mt Washington on that clear bright June morning 
Do you read Dickens and Scott Milton and Shakspeare 
Longfellow and Whittier Strange that they prefer dis- 
honesty and money ease and feebleness to poverty 
and honesty labor and strength 

Apply, in an agreeable manner, the adjectives in each of the fol- 
lowing lines, to one object. Punctuate correctly. 

Soft, fleecy, summery, floating. 

Good, tender, all seeing, wise. 

Fire-destroyed, energetic, growing, unconquerable. 

Soft, silvery, harvest. 

Speckled, sharp-eyed, graceful, small. 

Old, funny, crooked, kind. 

Many, distant, far-famed, lovely. 

Roaring, boundless, stormy, changeful. 

Write a sentence containing four adjectives that describe the 
town in which you live ; one containing four adjectives describing 
the man or woman you hope to become ; one containing three, de- 
scribing a rivulet ; four, describing California ; five, describing 
Abraham Lincoln ; four, describing a good horse ; four, describing a 
poor horse ; five, describing the fourth of July. 



VERBS. 
LESSON XXV. 



The running horse. 
Birds sing. 
Water flows. 
Fred singing. 
Tramping soldiers. 



2. The horse runs. 

4. Singing birds. 

6. Flowing water. 1 

8. Fred sings. 

o. The soldiers tramp. 



In the first example, what action are you led to suppose the horse 
performs? The second example makes you /enow, or tells you posi- 
tively, that the horse does what? The third example positively says 
what of the birds? What word says it? The fourth example makes 
you suppose what of the birds? What word is used that leads you 
to suppose? In the fifth example, are you made to suppose, or are 
you positively told, something of water? What word does this? In 
the sixth, how is it? Does the word flowing in the sixth make you 
know, or suppose ? In the seventh, is an action told, or is it spoken 
about in such manner as to make you suppose? In the eighth ex- 
ample? In the ninth? In the tenth? What words, in the above 
examples, positively tell? What words lead you to suppose? 

Words that positively tell are said to affirm. Words 
that lead one to suppose are said to assume. 

In the above examples, name words that affirm, That assume. 

Words that affirm arc verbs. 

What is a verb? In the above, which words are verbs, and why? 

Let us examine the following sentences to find the verbs, and to 
see what they affirm. 

Heroes fight. 

Who acts ? What act do "they perform? (The act of fighting.) 
What word affirms this act ? 

Flowers bloom. 

What act? What act do they perform? What word affirms 
this act ? -15 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Men think. 

Who act? What act do they do? What word affirms this act? 

The fighting, blossoming and thinking are what? In the sen- 
tences above, these acts are affirmed by what class of words ? Then, 
verbs may affirm what? 

God is. 

Is is what kind cf word ? 

Love exists. 

Exists is what kind of word ? 
♦Barbarisms were. 

Were is what kind of word? 

Truth will be. 

Will be is what kind of word? 

Try to substitute the words exists, existed, zuill exist, for the verbs 
in the above examples. Can you do it? Since the verbs exists, ex- 
isted, will exist can be substituted for the other verbs, what do you 
think the verbs in the sentences, really affirm? 

John sleeps. 

Sleep affirms that John is in a certain — — — — . 

The tower leans. 

Leans affirms that the tower is in a certain - — . 

Sleep and leans are what kind of words? 
Then, verbs may affirm what ? 

Men own slaves. 

Men are represented as being what? What word shows them to 
be this? Then, verbs may affirm what? What four things may 
verbs affirm? 

Charles has Mary's book. We had our friend's pony. 
We shall have Kate's gloves. 

Read the nouns that represent the actual owners. Read the 
names of those who possess, for a time, certain things, but do not 
own them. What words show this possession ? Verbs may affirm 
what, *hen? How many different things may be affirmed by verbs ? 
Name them. 

James is a carpenter. Thomas was a soldier. A sen- 
tence is words. We shall be teachers. 



VEtUiS. 47 

Why are these sentences? Read the nouns. Read th-e simple 
predicates. Read the simple subjects. In the first sentence, what 
word is employed to affirm that James and carpenter are the same? 
In the second example, what two Avoids represent the same object? 
What word tells you that Thomas and the soldier are identical? 
W T hat kind of word is is ? 

A sentence words. 

Do these words affirm anything? What word that will affirm, 

may be supplied? What does is, the word supplied, do? Does is 

of itself affirm action? Being? State? Possession? Ownership? 

It simply does what? What must a verb do? What may it 

affirm ? 

A verb is a word or luords that affirm. 
Verbs may affirm action, being, state, possession or 
ownership. 

Name the verbs in the following. 

Of what do they affirm? What do they affirm ? 

The chestnut grows in New England. In June, its 
blossoms are beautiful. In October, the children hunt 
for the brown nuts. 

" The keen spirit 

Seizes the prompt occasion." 
" The rohin warbled forth his full, clear note 

For hours, and wearied not." 
41 We rise in glory as we sink in pride." 
" But screw your courage to the sticking point, 

And we Ml not fail." 
44 True fortitude is seen in great exploits 

That justice warrants, and that wisdom guides." 

Write a sentence about trees that will contain two nouns, one 
verb and two adjectives. Write a sentence containing a verb affirm- 
ing possession, and a noun showing what is possessed. Write an 
interrogative sentence containing a verb representing action ; an ex- 
clamatory sentence containing a verb affirming state; an imperative 
sentence containing a verb that simply affirms. 




PARTICIPLES. 

LESSON XXVI. 

Flying birds. Growing violets. Sleeping child. Pos- 
sessing a knife. The man owning a book. The man 
being killed. Fogs being about the island. The fires 
existing in Minnesota. A servant having his master's 
horse. 

How many of these are sentences ? Why ? Name the words 
that express action ; being; state; ownership ; possession. Do these 
words affirm ? What do they do ? What do they assume ? What do 
verbs affirm ? Since these words assume what verbs affirm, what 
name may be given them? Why are they assuming words? Why 
verbal words? 

Participles are assuming verbal words. 

Name the participles in the above examples. What does each as- 
sume? Of what does it assume? Study the following sentences. 
Write the verbal words that assume, in one column, those that affirm, 
in another. What name is given to the assuming verbal words? 
What, to the affirming verbal words? 

Ships plying the waters about Cape Horn, must be 
strongly built. Ships that ply the waters about Cape 
Horn, must be strongly built. The bird flying against 
the window, broke its wing. The bird broke its wing, 
because it flew against the window. The girl being killed 
by tight dressing, is a pitiable object. Swiftly moving 
clouds are grand. Water running over pebbles, seems to 
sing. The heart, beating seventy times a minute, does 
not grow weary. The^child, having been beaten, cried. 
The horse, galloping swiftly over the prairies, startled the 

4S 



PARTICIPLES. 49 

lit lie gopher throwing up fresh earth near the growing 
grain ; crushed the purple pasque flower opening its life 
to the sun ; and then, bounding across the narrow 
stream, flew up the bluff and was soon lost to sight. 

By substituting verbs for participles, change the preceding sentences 
without altering the meaning. About a fly, write a sentence that 
will contain a participle. Write another sentence expressing the 
same idea, but use a verb instead of a participle. Follow the same di- 
rections in writing sentences about a bee, a jelly-fish, a dandelion, 
Paris, fashion, Gen. Sheridan. 



LESSON XXVII. 

The dashing waves beat high. The lady talking is Mrs. 
Siddons. That horse being whipped, is Alfred's. The 
contract drawn by Lawyer Simpson relates to bridges. 
The compressed lungs are weak. The book being read is 
an Anatomy. 

What elements are the italicised words? Why? What kind of 
words are they? Why? Then participles may be what elements? 
The participles belong to what words ? Are the participles principal 
elements? Why are they adjective elements? Why are they subor- 
dinate elements/' Where, with regard to the nouns they limit, are 
the participles placed? Complete the following by adding parti- 
ciples. 

The horse is valuable. The flowers are 

very brilliant. His old coat so let the cold wind 

through. Millions of money , thousands of lives 

, unnumbered tears are the price of victory. 

The boy time from his work, read the poets. The 

man poor, was poor. The man poor, yet 

ride, is rich. refines the mind. I abhor . The 

water against the rocks has worn them into fantastic 

shapes. is necessary to life. 



5° 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Write a sentence containing two nouns, each limited by a partici- 
ple placed before it. A sentence containing two nouns, one limited 
by a participle placed before it, and the other by one placed after it. 
One containing a noun limited by two participles placed before it. 
One containing a noun limited by two participles alter it. One con- 
taining a noun limited by two participles placed before it, and two 
placed after it. 

Which of the following words are verbs? Which are participles? 
Which could be used alone as simple predicates? Include each one 
in a sentence, taking care that it retains its assuming or its affirming 
character. 

Growing. 
Saw. 
Has. 
Obeying. 



Being helped. 
Will be seen. 
Whispered. 
Was killed. 
Write verbs that will express what the following participles as- 



Grew. 

Loving. 
Running 
Sewing. 



Ironed. 
Having. 
Blocked. 
Analyzed. 



Expressing. 

Breaking. 

Being cut. 

Having broken. 

Was bent. 

Having been stolen. 



Crying. Assuming. 

Lying. Curving. 

Being told. 

Being spoiled. 

Having been loved. 

Having been hurt. 
Write participles that will assume what the following verbs affirm. 
Flew. Saw. See. Love. 

Sang. Ran. Walked. Mended. 

Loved. Amputated. Hemmed. Overlooked. 

Will help. Was posted. Am seen. Was torn. 




INFINITIVES. 

LESSON XXVIII. 

To own a horse is my desire. He came to play. One 
needs to sleep. The farmer has men to plant corn. 
The vain came to be seen. The wise came to see. We 
caught a worm to give the bird. The politician hoped 
to be elected. Children to love make the heart glad. 
Boys love to skate. To be cured was his desire. He 
feared to swim. To be is joy. 

In these sentences, name the affirming words. What kind of 
words are they? What do verbs affirm? Name the words that ex- 
press, but do not affirm, action. Name the words that express, but do 
not affirm, being. The words that express, but do not affh-m, state. 
The words that express, but do not affirm, ownership. The words 
that express, but do not affirm, possession. Since these words ex- 
press without affirming, we may say they do what? What do parti- 
ciples assume? Are these words like participles? Why? By what 
little word is each of these assuming words preceded? 

Infinitives are assuming verbal words that have, or 
may have, to placed before them. 

The word to is said to be part of the infinitive. What is an infin- 
itive? Infinitives and participles do what ? What do they assume? 

Participles and infinitives differ only in form. 
Complete the following definitions. 

Participles and infinitives are . 

They may assume . 



Participles and infinitives are unlike in 



Name the participles and the infinitives in the following sentences. 
Which are used as subjects? Which as adjective elements? Which 
belong to the simple predicates? 51 



c 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

The sun, shining on the water, dazzles tne eyes. To 
preserve our health is a duty. The foaming stream comes 
tumbling over the rocks. The paper written yesterday 
and mailed to-day, will reach its destination to-morrow. 
I came to bury Csesar, not to praise him. We are ex- 
pecting to sail. To smell the fresh earth is wholesome 
for the body. Striving to better, oft we mar what's well. 
The devil hath power to assume a pleasing shape. 

Analyze the following sentences by word, and by diagram. 

The long train of cars came rattling into town. The 
laboring man is one who works with head or hand. The 
sweet note floating through the air, comes from nature's 
songster. Horse-back riding is good for consumptives. 
Strike while the iron is hot. He sinks into thy depths 
with bubbling groan. Circling above us, the black 
rooks fly forward and backward. He was sent to spy 
out the land. I have brought a budding world of ferny 
plumes but half uncurled To hope is man's preroga- 
tive. I am glad to see you. Singing, she worked. The 
lake lay before us smiling at the sky. 




ATTRIBUTES AND PREDICATES. 
LESSON XXIX. 

We look at leaves and see that they have color, form 
and size. We know persons from their height, figure, col- 
or, and by their features. Some men and women are 
noted for generosity, braveiy, goodness ; others, for 
?neanness, cowardice, dishonesty and narrowness. Color, 
form, honesty, size, &c, are said to be qualities ox attri- 
butes of the objects to which they belong. The word 
attribute means added or given to 

Name two attributes of New York. Name three attributes of 
the Alps. Three of a bird. Four of an orange. Three of Colum- 
bus. Five of the ocean. 

Attributes may be affirmed of the objects to which 
they belong ; thus, — 

James is earnest. Apples are sweet. Mountains are 
grand. Boys are free. Ants are industrious. Drunk- 
ards are weak. 

In these sentences, which are the simple subjects ? Why ? Which 
are the verbs? Which are the adjectives? Which are the simple 
predicates? Why? The words expressing the attributes are in 
which one of the necessary parts of the sentences? What words 
affirm that these attributes belong to the objects represented by the 
subjects? 

Words that affirm without representing attributes, are 
copulas. 

Copula means uniter or coupler. Copulas unite the 
attribute to the subject ; and they affirm that a union 
exists between the realities represented by subject and 
attribute. 55 



54 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



What is a copula? Since a copula affirms, what kind of word is 
it? If it be copula and verb, what kind of verb might it be called? 
What is a copulative verb? 

The predicates of the sentences you have just studied, are com- 
posed of what two things? Which are the copulas? Which are the 
attributes ? The attributes represent qualites belonging to what ob- 
jects? What nouns represent these objects? Since the qualities be- 
long to the objects represented by the subjects, the attributes, or quaL 
ity words, should belong to what part of the sentence ? 

An adjective used with the copula to form the simple pred- 
icate, belongs to the subject. 



LESSON XXX. 

Use the following adjectives with copulas to form simple predicates. 
Honest. Noisy. Beautiful. Incomprehensible. 

Striped. Sick. Fast. Orange. 

Swift. Green. Abundant. Immortal. 

Known. Unknown. Sweet. 

Besides affirming qualities of objects, we may affirm 
actions, beings, states, possession and ownership. We 
may also affirm the identity of objects. 

The following predicates affirm what? 

John is post-master. The man is. Leaves are green. 
Truth is existing. Horses are running. We shall be 
seeing. Austin was Governor. The woman is Mary. 
James is sleeping. Cities were built. I am tall. The 
beam is leaning. Mary owns a book. 

In these examples, which words are subjects? Why? Which are sim- 
ple predicates? Why ? Which are verbs? Why ? Which are the 
sentences in which adjectives are used with copulas to form simple 
predicates? Read the sentences in which nouns or pronouns are 
used with verbs to form simple predicates ; in which participles are 
soused. What attribute is said to belong to leaves? What attri- 



ATTRIBUTES AND PREDICATES. 55 

bute am I said to possess? John possesses certain powers, or attri- 
butes, by which he is what? The woman possesses certain attributes 
by which she is identified as being who? Austin had attributes, or 
powers, which lead us to affirm that he was what ? Horses are said 
to possess and to be exercising what power, or attribute? What at- 
tribute is affirmed of James? What attribute has truth? What at- 
tribute belongs to Mary ? The power of being built was in what? 

In each of the above examples, a power, or attribute, is 
affirmed of an object. It is so in every sentence. 

In the abovt sentences, find the words that represent the attri- 
butes belonging to the objects. Find the words that affirm that the 
attributes belong to the objects. 

The word in the predicate that represents that which is 
affirmed, or the attribute of the object, is the attribute of 
the predicate. 

The verb, that affirms that an attribute belongs to an ob- 
ject, is the copula. 

Each of the predicates in the sentences [we have discussed, con- 
sists of what two parts ? Which part can be omitted, and still make 
the desired affirmation? Then, what are the necessary parts of a 
predicate? What is a copula ? What is an. attribute? What class- 
es of words do you find used as attributes? 

When the attribute is a verbal word, it and the copula, 
together, form a verb. 



ATTRIBUTIVE VERBS. 
LESSON XXXI. 

The rain is falling. Alexis was sailing. He will be 
returning to Vienna. The brain was controlling our 
acts. The heart is grieving. The clouds are gathering. 
You are sleeping. Winnie was owning Dickey. 

Name the copulas in these sentences. Name the attributes. 
What ideas are expressed by the attributes? Since the attributes 
express the same ideas that verbs affirm, what kind of attributes 
may they be called? (Verbal.) 

Change the predicate so that one tvord will represent both copula 
and attribute. What hind of word now represents both copula and 
attribute? The verb represents how many things? What are they? 

Aii attributive verb represents by one word both cop- 
ula and attribute. 

Affirm by means of copula and verbal attribute, an act of a 
lion ; of a tree ; of the sea ; of the rain ; of roots ; of salt ; of 
Washington ; of Queen Elizabeth. Affirm the same acts of the same 
objects by means of attributive verbs. Affirm by means of copula 
and verbal attribute a state of a child ; of a tree ; of a horse ; a 
house. Affirm by means of copula and verbal attribute the existence 
of God ; truth ; forgiveness. Affirm by copula and verbal attribute 
that John possesses ; that horses possess ; that Martha possesses. 
Use copula and verbal attribute to affirm that Washington owned; 
that Stewart owns ; that a master owned. 

Include each of the following attributive verbs in a sentence ; and 
in another, following it, express the same idea by a predicate consist- 
ing of copula and attribute. 



Run. 


Runs. 


Studied. 


Look. 


Observe. 


Saw. 


Loves. 


Love. 


Live. 


Will walk. 


Declaims. 


Wrote 


Writes, 


Hem. 


Hems. 


Obey. 



ATTRIBUTIVE VERBS. 57 

Analyze the following, according to the form before given. 

The rumbling noises in the streets grate harshly on 
the ear. The rain is falling quietly on the new made 
graves. I desire to live an upright life. Life is a span; 
it bridges the gulf between two eternities. He sleeps 
well to-night ; his muscles are quiet; his skin is moist; 
he will recover. Sailing on the lake is pleasant. The 
child splashing in the tub, is Helen. James has five 
horses. He desires to sell them. Men who are cultiva- 
ted, will love flowers ; they will see beauty in the ant ; 
they will study the rocks lying in the valleys. The body 
of the mouse is wonderfully made. I love to examine 
its tiny parts. It ears are beautiful and delicate. The 
child, anticipating a pleasant visit, could not sleep sound- 
ly. Joy cometh in the morning. Fighting seems neces- 
sary sometimes. To live in luxury is not right. Shining 
stars are worlds far off, unknown. 

Name the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, participles, infinitives, and 
verbs, in the above sentences. Name the copulas, and name the 
words that are used with them to form the simple predicates. Name 
the attributive verbs. 



PROPOSITIONS. 

LESSON XXXII. 



Pictures. Are painted. 
Books. Will be read. 



Music. 
Glass. 



Is written. 
Was stained. 



We shall sail. 
Birds build nests. 
Boys will enter college. 
Maria will study. 



What class of words is in the first column? In the second? 
Combine each word in the first, with any in the second, so as to make 
a combination pleasant to the ear. What does each combination 
make? In each sentence, which is subject, and which predicate? 
How many sentences have you formed ? How many combinations 
of subject and predicate ? 

A combination of subject and predicate is a proposition. 
How many propositions have you formed? Why are they prop- 
ositions ? 

Henry comes from New York. 
The winter has gone. 
They are prepared. 
Her eyes permit. 
How many propositions are written above ? Connect those that 
are opposite, so as to make one sentence of two propositions. Sup- 
ply a connecting word, punctuate and use capitals correctly. Each 
sentence you have written contains how many propositions? Com- 
bine each of the following lines, in such a manner as to make one 
sentence. 

John will go. He can. School is out. 

Mary will go. The ship comes in. Her father is better. 
Thebaby cries. She isputinherbath. The water is cold. 
Can you be happy ? You are rich. You have no learning. 
Write a sentence containing one proposition ; two ; three. 

A simple sentence is tvords affirming a tJiou^ht by 

one proposition. 58 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 
LESSON XXXIII. 

The sun shines. 

Add an element showing manner. 

The ship sails. 

Add an element showing place. 

Chestnuts ripen. 

Add an element showing time. 

Mother sends me to school. 

Add an element showing purpose. 

Rivers flow. 

Add an element showing direction. 

Soldiers limp. 

Add an element showing cause. 

He drove the nail. 

Add an element showing the instrument. 

In the following sentences, tell what the italicized elements denote. 

I awoke early, and heard the bells ringing for fire. 
Say nothing, when you have nothing to say. I ran hastily \ 
up the stairs, towards the artist's room, hoping to find him in. 
Merrily running over brook and stone. 

She sang sweetly. 

Sweetly tells of what? Then, to what word ought it to belong? 

Joy will come to-morrow. 

To-morrow tells of what? To what word ought it to belong? 

Speak so that you may be heard. 

So that yon may be heard tells what? Manner of what ? To 
what ought it to belong ? 

The words, sang, will come and speak, are what kind of word.-? 
Then, elements may belong to what ? 

Sweetly singing birds have come. 

Sweetly tells of what ? Belongs to what ? 50 



Co ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The bells, ringing merrily, call the bridal party. 

Merrily tells of what? Belongs to what ? 

The crying being heard in the night startled all. 

In the night tells of what? Belongs to what ? Singing, ringing, 
and being heard, are what kind of words? Then, elements may 
belong to Avhat ? 

To read well is an accomplishment. 

What word expresses manner? Manner of what ? To what 
word does well belong ? 

I intend to study at night. 

At night expresses what idea? To what does it belong? 

Mary hopes to sing in Boston. 

In Boston belongs to what ? Expresses what ? 

He looked, to see clearly. 

What possessed clearness? To what does clearly belong ? 7'o 
read, to study, to sing, to see, are what kind of words ? Then, elements 
may belong to what ? 

The very weary boy is a laborer. 

In what state was the boy? Very tells what of the weariness? 
To what does the word very belong ? 

My friend is ever so kind. 

How kind is the friend ? What represents the degree of kindness ? 
liver so belongs to what ? 

A scarcely ripe peach is unwholesome. 

Scarcely tells degree of what ? Belongs to what ? Weary, kind, 
and ripe are what kind of words? What elements belong to these 
words? Then, elements may belong to what ? 

Has truth lied ? 

Answer this by using a word that denies the whole. 

Was Vicksburg taken ? 

Give an affirmative answer in one word. 

Should girls be strong ? 

Give an affirmative answer in one word. 

Will cholera rage here? 

Give an answer by using one word that shows doubt. Each word 
you have used answers how much of the question? Then, to how 
much of the sentence Moes it belong? Since these questions are 
combinations of subject and predicate, what term can be mven them ? 



ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 6 I 

Then, the words you have used as answers, belong to what? Ele- 
ments may belong to what ? Change as many of the above interrog 
ative sentences as you can, to declarative ; include words expressing 
denial, or negation, affirmation and doubt. Thus : Truth has not fled. 
Looking at the elements considered in the chapter, we find that they 
may belong to what five things ? 

Such elements are adverbial. 

Adverbial elements are those that belong to verbs, 
participles, infinitives, adjectives and propositions. 

Name the adverbial elements in the examples we have studied. 
To what does each belong? What does each one express? 
Name the adverbial elements and the ideas they express in the fol- 
lowing examples. To what does each belong? Why is each an ad- 
verbial element ? 

They partially comprehended the question. There is 
no such word as fail. The master spoke twice. Those, 
who would forever lead the weak, are too kind. The 
exceedingly brave boy was lost at sea. He went to sea 
that he might find health. When the wind blows, the 
cradle will rock. I shall only read. James agrees fully. 
Depart with gladness. John's head was obtained by 
artifice. They determined to get it somehow. The hall 
was densely crowded with very attentive listeners, who 
eagerly drank in all the intensely interesting facts given 
by the traveler from the far distant country. Should 
you want a pupil to recite thoroughly, call upon Edward. 

Which of these sentences consists of only one proposition? Of 
two propositions? What is a proposition? What kind of sentences 
are those that consist of one proposition? Name the adverbial ele- 
ments which are propositions. Since they are adverbial elements, 
also propositions, what term would describe them? Write a sentence 
containing an adverbial proposition that expresses time. Another 
containing an adverbial proposition expressing place. Another ex- 
pressing reason. Another expressing condition. Write in a column 
the ideas that are expressed by the adverbial elements. Study to 
net the exact terms. 




ADVERBS. 

LESSON XXXIV. 

Victor Hugo writes vigorously. I will not go. The 
boy talking earnestly, is captain of the club. Bob-o- 
link, merrily swinging on a weed, pours forth a most liquid 
note. Mrs. Scott Siddons reads well. To live properly 
was her desire. The rose is very beautiful. He expect- 
ed to sail early. Will you go ? No. How strong he 
is? Is he certainly dead ? Yes. To walk vigorously is 
a sign of strength. My gypsy girl is very precious. 

Name the verbs in these sentences. The participles. The infin- 
itives. The adjectives. The propositions. Name the words he- 
longing to the verbs. To the participles. To the infinitives. To 
the adjectives. To the propositions. What does each denote? 
Since they belong to verbs, participles, &c, what kind of elements 
are they? 

Adverbs are words belonging to verbs, participles, infin- 
itives, adjectives and propositions. 

What elements are the adverbs in the preceding examples? How 
many proper answers can be given to these questions? Why? To 
the following sentences, add words that will belong to the adverb. 

He sings beautifully. The rose is delicately 

tinted. The poor woman worked hard that she 

had no strength for study. Mary walks elegantly 

than John. The spider's web is beautifully made. 

The words you have supplied belong to what class of words? 

Words belonging to adverbs are Adverbs. 

Each adverb you have supplied, expresses what idea? Thus far, 
each adverb has been what element? It is always so. What ele- 
ments are the supplied words above? 62 



ADVERBS. 6$ 

Write a fuller definition of an adverb than has been given. Of an 
adverbial element.* 

Find the adverbs in these sentences. Tell why each is an adverb. 
Thus : The word soon belongs to the verb j/a^y hence, it is an adverb. 

The cars start soon. The child obeys instantly. The 
snow falls constantly. The bricks are laid firmly. The 
Indian sends his arrow directly. Come quickly. Sailing 
slowly is tiresome- I hope to sing correctly. No, you 
must not risk your health. The sinner will certainly be 
punished. Why will you die ? Wonderfully beautiful 
clouds floated about the clear mountain peak. How ill 
is the man ? My friend writes charmingly. My heart is 
firmly fixed. Henry studies to learn how. The smoke, 
slowly ascending, broke into sprays, which the rising sun 
touched lightly, and converted into objects of great 
beauty. He went once. 

Include the following words in sentences. 



Sweetly. 


Soundly. 


Doubtfully. 


Now. 


Then. 


Soon. 


Lately. 


Indistinctly. 


Kindly. 


Yes. 


Certainly. 


Twice. 


Early. 


Late. 


Thrice. 


Suddenly. 


No. 


Directly. 


Hesitatingly. 


Easily. 



What ideas are expressed by these adverbs. f 

Write a sentence containing propositions that are adverbial and 
adjective elements. To what are the propositions added? Why 
are they propositions? What are their subjects? Their predicates? 

Write one sentence containing adverbial elements of degree 
and time. One,of negation and place. What is a simple sentence? 
Write a simple sentence containing adverbs of doubt and addition. 
Write a sentence containing an adverbial proposition, in which an 
adverb indicates repetition of, or number of times an act is done. 
A sentence containing an adverb of affirmation or of approval. 

♦Note. — It is best to review frequently all that has been previously considered. 
The pupil is then ready to build the unknown upon the known. His knowledge 
is positive, fresh, available for present use. 

1 Note.— Too much attention can hardly be given to the ideas expressed by 
words. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write an exclamatory sentence containing an adverb belonging 
to an adverb. Write an interrogative sentence containing an adverb 
asking for time; an interrogative sentence containing an adverb in- 
quiring for place ; another, containing an adverb asking for cause j 
another, asking for means ; another, for motive. Write a simple sen- 
tence stating number of times an act is done ; an imperative sentence 
commanding an act to be done in a certain order. (First, second, &c.) 

Write a list of the ideas adverbs and adverbial elements may express. 

In the following, substitute an adverb for the italicized elements. 

Henry will correspond with you from time to time. In 
this place the great poet died. For what reason do you 
at this time, address me with harshness? You must not 
read in so ttnintelligible a manner. We get pines every 
year. Our letters come once a month. Can you deceive 
me in this manner ? When we had traveled a great way 
toward the east, and with extreme weariness were approach- 
ing the walled city, with suddenness there appeared a 
band of armed men. It was determined that we should 
attack without a moment's hesitation. We found they could 
be driven toward the city with ease. I find no amusement 
in this city. A true friend criticizes with freedom, assists 
with the whole heart and defends with boldness. With 
great solemnity, the priest pronounced the blessing. 



LESSON XXXV. 

Adverbial elements should be agreeably arranged, and 
so placed that no doubt can arise as to what they are in- 
tended to modify. 

Think of a stream with which you are thoroughly acquainted. 
Write a sentence containing four adverbial elements that describe 
the movement of the stream. 

With the same thought-preparation, write sentences containing 
adverbial elements describing the following ; 



ADVERBS. 65 

The sleeping of a child. The barking of a dog. The preaching 
of a minister. The ringing of a bell. The moving of a train. The 
flight of an eagle. The flight of a quail. The swimming of a fish. 
The moving of a snake. The laugh of a jolly fellow. The laugh of 
a prim man. 

Correct the following. 

I am sorry truly for you. The parents spoke of their 
children who were lost at sea with tears in their eyes. 
That picture represents London hanging on the wall. I 
believe you will find the lost book in the library without 
exactly knowing why. All Germany and France are in- 
terested in this matter and part of America too. The 
happy fellow stood looking at his favorite pony with a 
smile on his face. We left a number of friends weeping 
behind us. The teacher has introduced drawing instead 
of writing into her school with great success. I shall go 
as I at first planned directly. He stole away quietly like 
a thief from town. I so sweetly listened to hear her sing. 

In the following, change the place of the exclusive word only, in 
such a manner as to give three different meanings to the sentence. 
Explain the meaning of each. 

Only I saw a cloak in the park on Sunday. 

Use the word too three times in this sentence. What does the 
sentence mean? 

Add the adverb ahvays to the following in such a manner as to 
convey different ideas. 

I dread to study. 

Express different ideas by adding clearly to the next sentence. 

I heard her singing. 

How many changes can you make by adding slowly to the next 
sentence? 

I made up my mind to speak of the shifting scene. 

In as many ways as possible, add the following to sentences of 
your own making. 

In the street. When I am old. Occasionally. 
Wrongly. Besides. With humps on their 

Too. For an old gentleman. [backs. 



ANALYSIS. 



LESSON XXXVI. 



Since we know more of elements, we are now able to 
analyze better than before. Observe the form, capitals 
and punctuation employed in the following analysis. 

Lady Diana, a fine, black, carriage horse, smoothly 
trotted a mile over the level track in Plainview. 

These words affirm a thought by one preposition ; hence, they are a 
simple sentence. Lady Diana,ajine, black, carriage horse, is the sim- 
ple subject and the parts that belong to it ; hence, it is the complex 
subject. Smoothly trotted a mile over the level track in Plainview, is 
the simple predicate and the parts that belong to it ; hence, it is the 
complex predicate. To Lady Diana, the simple subject, belongs a 
fine, black, carriage horse, an adjective element, showing identity. To 
horse, are added a, fine, black and carriage, adjective elements, used to 
show appearance, color and use. To trotted, the simple predicate, 
belong smoothly, a mile, and over the level track in Plainview, adverb- 
ial elements, showing manner, distance and place. To track, belong 
the, level and in Plainview, adjective elements, showing that some 
particular track is meant, condition and place. 



ORDER OF ANALYSIS. 



i. Kind of sentence. 

2. Complex subject. 

3. Complex predicate. 

4. Simple subject, and discussion of all its subordi- 
nate parts, 

5 Simple predicate-, and discussion of all its subordi- 
nate parts. 66 



ANALYSIS. 67 

In a similar manner, analyze the following sentences. If there 
is trouble in deciding what kind of an element any part is, ask : 
What does it describe? What word represents this? This element 
must belong to the word representing the thing that the element 
describes. 

If the element belongs to a noun or pronoun, what kind of element 
is it? If it belongs to a verb, participle, infinitive, adjective or prop- 
osition, and expresses the ideas written in your last list, what kind of 
element is it? 

Sir Edward Landseer, an English knight, paints with a 
masterly hand. Winona will not be forgotten by me. 
Meerschaum is found about Sebastopol. The liver is 
held in place by live ligaments. The first newspaper 
appeared in Rome at the time of the Republic. The 
Connecticut river was first explored as far as Hartford by- 
Adrian Block. 

Name the nouns, pronouns, verbs, participles, adjectives and ad- 
verbs in these sentences. 

Analyze on paper the first of the following sentences. Punctuate 
according to the model in the book. 

The bird singing in the tree, is a robin. Her arm was 
broken driving over the causeway on a dark night. The 
beautiful wild flower, having been taken from its shady 
nook, died. The cedars, growing on the mountains, are 
small. The dog, being much enraged by the blow, bit 
the cruel fellow. The man, sowing his field, is a believer in 
law. The Carnivora possess, generally, three kinds of 
teeth, — incisors, canine and molars. The Rodentia pos- 
sess two kinds of teeth, — incisors and molars. The Ru- 
minants, before swallowing their food, bring it back to the 
mouth to chew it. 

Diagram the above sentences, thus : — 

I The 
bird I singing | in tree, | the 

is 
[robin. | a 



68 



ENCiT.TSH GRAMMAR. 

( arm | Her 

I on night. | a dark 
( was broken j driving | over causeway | the 

f I The 

a beautiful 

! flower, ., -. 
-{ ' | wdd 

died. [ having been taken | from nook, \ s , 



LESSON XXXVII. 

PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE PROPOSITIONS. 

My friend who lives in Connecticut, sings sweetly. 
The leaves are shaking violently, because the wind blows. 
Men who are wise, will do the work that is most neces- 
sary. Persons who are dishonest, cannot be brave. 
Sepals, which are parts of the calyx, are usually green. 
Do you know the fringed gentian, which grows by the 
stream ? You can find it when the asters are blooming. 
We know the ox is a ruminant, because he brings his 
food back to his mouth, to chew it. The lion, which eats 
flesh, is a carnivorous animal. When mother loves, all 
things go well. If you are sick, you must remain at home. 

In the above sentences, read the propositions that are adjective 
elements. Read those that are adverbial. What is a proposition? 
Of what thing ox action does each proposition tell? What word (br 
words) represents that ? The element belongs to that word. To what 
word does each subordinate proposition in each sentence belong? 
What kind of elements are those that belong to other elements? Since 
the above adjective and adverbial propositions are lower in rank, 
what name will describe them ? 

What is a suboi-dinate proposition ? Read the propositions high- 
est in rank. Read those of stibordinale rank. 

The proposition highest in rank, is the principal prop- 
osition. 

Read the principal proposition in each of the preceding sentences. 
How many propositions are there? Are they similar, or are they 
dissimilar, in order, or rank? Read those containing a principal 



Analysis. 69 

and one subordinate proposition. Read those containing a principal 
and more than one subordinate proposition. 

A complex sentence is one containing a principal 
proposition and one or more subordinate propositions. 

Speak complex sentences let the following nouns be the subjects 
of the principal propositions. 

Street-car. Mahogany. Salt. 

Rail-road. Bismarck. Sugar. 

Fish-rod. Elephant. Iron. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 

METHOD OF ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

James D. Dana of Yale College, who is Professor of 
Natural History, wrote many volumes, after he returned 
from his voyage round the world. 

This sentence contains a principal and subordinate propositions ; 
hence, it is complex. Ja:nes D. Dana of Yale College ivrote many 
volumes, is the principal proposition. Who is Professor of A r atural 
History, and he returned from his voyage round the world, are the 
subordinate propositions. James D. Dana of Yale College, who is 
Professor of Natural History, is the simple subject and the parts that 
belong to it ; hence, it is the complex subject. Wrote many volumes, 
after he returned from his voyage round the world, is the simple pred- 
icate and the parts that belong to it ; hence, it is the complex predi- 
cate. To James D. Dana, the simple subject, belong of Yale 
College and who is Professor of Natural History, adjective elements 
that identify James D. Dana by showing place and office. Of the 
subordinate, adjective proposition, who is the simple subject ; is 
Prof essor of Natural History is the complex predicate ; is Professor 
is the simple predicate. To Professor, the noun attribute, belongs 
of Natural History, an adjective element denoting identity. To 
wrote, the simple predicate, belongs many volumes, an element show- 
in<y what he wrote ; and after he returned from his voyage round the 
world, an adverbial element showing time. To volumes, belongs 
many, an adjective element showing indefinite number. Of the sub- 



V 



ENGLISH GRAMMA R. 



ordinate, adverbial proposition, he is the simple subject ; returned 
from his voyage round the world, is the complex predicate. To re- 
turned, the simple predicate, belongs from his voyage round the world, 
an adverbial element showing place. To voyage, belong his and 
round the world, adjective elements showing possession, (or who took 
the voyage,) and identity. To world, belongs the, an adjective ele- 
ment used for euphony. 



James D. Dana, 



i 



of Yale College, 
( who 



wrote 



Professor | of Natural History 

volumes | many 

n. \ he ! , -, . 

after - , f his 

{ returned | from voyage | vound world> | the 



ORDER OF ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

i. Kind of sentence. 

2. Principal proposition. 

3. Subordinate proposition, or propositions. 

4. Complex subject. 

5. Complex predicate. 

6. Simple subject and added parts. 

7. Analysis of any subordinate propositions in com- 
plex subject. 

8. Simple predicate and added parts. 

9. Analysis of any subordinate proposition found in 
complex predicate. 

Analyze each sentence in the preceding chapter, by the two meth- 
ods. Write the full analyses of the shortest sentences. That you 
may do it well, study the full analysis in the chapter above, and be 
able to answer the following questions : — 

What shows that certain words are taken from the sentence ana- 
lyzed ? How many commas are used to punctuate elements that 
seem thrown in for the sake of giving an additional, but not a necessa- 
ry, idea ? 



ANALYSTS. 7 1 

Observe the adjective propositions in the sentences at the beginning 
of the chapter. If they are necessary to the identification of an object, 
how many and where are the commas placed ? If they are not nec- 
essary, how many and where are the commas placed ? 

Ad adjective proposition that is used as an essential 
identifier, is not separated by a comma from the word to 
which it belongs. If it consists of several words, a comma 
should follow it. Example. — You may use the pencil that 
I gave you. Those whom we love most dearly, are those 
for whom we would sacrifice ourselves. 

An adjective proposition that is introduced to give an 
additional, but not an essential, idea, is separated by a 
comma from the word to which it belongs. When it is in 
the body of a sentence, a comma follows it. Example. — 
My father, who was fond of nature, early impressed this 
love upon his children. 

Write six sentences containing adjective propositions that are es- 
sential identifiers. Six containing adjective propositions introduced 
to give an additional, but not an essential, idea. Let the sentences 
express thoughts of the following : 

Alps. Abater. Mississippi. Sun. 

Italy. Alligators. Grapes. Pinks. 

Carnelians. Wind. Scott. Volcanoes. 

An adverbial proposition, if short and closely following 
the word to which it belongs, is not preceded by a com- 
ma otherwise it is. When it is in the body of a sentence, 
a comma follows it. Example. You are as tall as John. 
When John comes, you may go. Dress yourself with the 
utmost care, for the snow is deep, and the mercury is 
below zero. 

An adverbial element that is used parenthetically, or 
that is loosely connected to other parts of the sentence, 
is set off by commas. Example. — The city, if I mistake 
not, was burned in 187 1. Yes, you can enlist. Young 
as he was, he, however, never forgot his duty. 



* 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Give the rule for punctuating adverbs that form a series. 
Write four sentences to illustrate each of the above rules. Let the 
sentences express thoughts of the following : 
Pilgrims. Snow. Rome. California. 

Eggs. Bees. Soldiers. Heat. 

Sahara. Ostrich. Cars. Roses. 

Punctuate the following, and give the rules for your work. 
Rhode Island which is the smallest State in the Union 
is noted for its manufactories My brother who is lame 
will learn the printer's trade The man who grows old in 
honestly serving his country should be honored Arnold 
upon whom the nation's curse fell is held in dishonorable 
remembrance Coral islands that stretch along a vast 
extent of coast are called barrier-reefs Islands having 
lagoons in the centre are called atolls and have not inaptly 
been called fairy rings of the ocean All study so far 
as we can judge expands the mind The oases of the 
sandy desert as I have said are not watered They only 
possess such wells as suffice more or less for the needs of 
the poor cultivator Flowing along the eastern boundary 
of the State is the Mississippi The sea possesses beauties 
in its depths that no glance can penetrate that no 
artist can picture except by help of the imagination I 
see when I have a short journey to travel I am quickly 
at home soon out of the pain of the travel soon in the 
possession of my rest He who neglects the present sins 
against the future Though you have education talent 
beauty wealth but have not goodness you cannot enter 
this charmed circle When the great general fell the 
cause seemed hopeless He unwilling to give pain hid 
the worst facts The boat nevertheless escaped Silently 
yet irresistibly beautifully yet terribly the stream bore 
the bark onward toward the rapids If you have tears 
prepare to shed them now Majors captains soldiers all 



ANALYSIS. 73 

were dismayed as the enemy came upon them suddenly 
without a moment's warning like an avalanche upon some 
ill fated Alpine village He who does evil that good may 
come pays a toll to the Devil to let him into heaven I 
would desire for a friend the son who never resisted the 
tears of his mother Youth fades love droops the leaves 
of friendship fall a mother's secret hope outlives them all 
If the nose of Cleopatra had been a little shorter it would 
have changed the history of the world* 

Write a sentence containing an adjective proposition found at its 
close. Write two containing adverbial propositions found at the be- 
ginning of the sentences. Write two containing adverbial proposi- 
tions found at their close. Write two containing adjective and ad- 
verbial propositions. 

♦Note. — The preceding sentences afford a good opportunity for a full review 
and a <rood talk. 




OBJECTIVE ELEMENT'S. 

LESSON XXXIX. 

John struck . Mary has . The speaker said 

The boy broke . Children love . We 



should dislike . The society helped 

Name the subject of each of the above. To each simple predi- 
cate, add an element showing ivhai or whom\ 

To what part of the sentences have you added the elements? You 
added them to show what ? 

The element added to struck tells of what act ? Then to what word 
should it belong ?* 

An clement added to a simple predicate to show what or 
who?n, is an objective element. 

What are objective elements? To what do they belong? Then, 
are they principal, or are they subordinate, elements? Why? 

Name the objective elements in the following sentences. 

Adverbial elements may belong to simple predicates. How will 
you distinguish them from objective elements ? 

The man shouted, " Do not go near the brink." They 
put guano on the field. I intend to study. Ellen 
Williams found a new fern. The girl dislocated her 
wrist. All hearts crave love. Will she understand it ? 
Do they get it ? The girls love dressing. The boys hate 
quiet. To make telescopes requires great care. Mend- 
ing watches is his business. The mother thought, " Is 
my child lost?" The whole congregation sang "Old 
Hundred." You must buy a large dictionary. 

*Note. — Teacher should ask similar questions regarding each other added 
element. 

74 



OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 



/;> 



Are the objective elements in the above, principal, or are they sub- 
ordinate? "Why? Are there any subordinate propositions? What 
kind of elements are they? What two adjectives would describe the 
propositions? Why ? Recall the subordinate propositions you have 
studied. How many different classes? To what do the objective 
propositions belong? The adjective? The adverbial? 

I hope to see John. The girl reading the book, is a 
pupil. Flying kites is fun. To read character well, is 
desirable. 

Name the participles in the above ; the infinitives, How do you 
dsstinguish participles from infinitives ? What are participles and 
infinitives? Read the elements that seem to belong to the parti- 
ciples ; to the infinitives. What do they show ? What elements 
do they resemble? 

Objective elements may be added to participles or 

infinitives to show what or whom. 

Form a complete definition of an objective clement. 



LESSON XL. 



Include each of the following 
jective element will belong to it. 

Love. Saw. 

To sew. To launch. 

Having fought. Killed. 
Mending. Hearing. 

Amputating. To lecture. 
Use the following as objective 
Chicago. Ellen. 

Trees. Swimming. 

Nailing. Grandly. 

Violets. Why ? 

Run for the doctor. 
Writing. 



words in a sentence so that an ol> 



Read. 
Biting. 
To iron. 
Claimed. 
Washing, 
elements : — 
Geography. 
Nails. 



Dislike. 

Froze. 

To observe. 

Wrote. 

To lay. 

Houses. 
To nail. 



How old is the child ? 
To obey. Carnelian. 

I do not understand you. 
Being whipped. 



j6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write a sentence containing an objective proposition belonging 
to a verb. Write one containing an objective proposition belonging 
to a participle ; one, belonging to an infinitive. 

Remember in writing these, that direct quotations are enclosed 
in quotation marks. Example. — He repeated : " There is no such 
word as fail." Indirect quotations are not included in quotation 
marks. Example. — He repeated that there is no such, word as fail. 

Include as objective elements the following : — first as direct, then, 
as indirect quotations. 

" A rolling stone gathers no moss." " A man is a man, 
for a' that." " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound 
of cure." " Cowards die many times before their deaths." 
" We left our country for our country's good." 

Write a simple sentence containing an objective element that is a 
participle. One containing an objective element that is an infinitive. 



LESSON XLI. 

FORM OF ANALYZING COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

I love children who are gentle. 

These words affirm a thought by a principal and a subordinate 
proposition ; hence, they form a complex sentence. 

/ love children, is the principal proposition. Who are gentle, is the 
subordinate proposition. 

/ is the fewest words that express that of which something is af- 
firmed ; hence, it is the simple subject. 

Love children who are gentle, is the complex predicate. To 
love, the simple predicate, belongs children who are gentle, an object- 
ive element showing whom. 

Ho children, belongs who are gentle, an adjective element indicat- 
ing identity. 

Of the subordinate proposition, who is the simple subject, and are 
gentle, the simple predicate. 

The same sentence stands thus in the diagram : — 

fl 

I i who 

I love | children - are 

[ senile. 



OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 



77 



Gentle is an attributive word used with the copula to form the 
predicate ; hence, it is placed in equal rank with are. 

In the same manner, by word and by diagram, analyze the fol- 
lowing : — 

The father makes shoes. The mother makes bread. 
I heard the noise of falling water. The sculptor Akers 
moulded the clay. The men who crossed the desert, 
needed food. They found a rabbit. They made a fire 
with which to cook it. The rabbit, a handsome little fel- 
low, is a rodent, or gnawer. Crowne says : " Who stabs 
my name, would stab my person too." Byron writes : 

"As rolls the ocean's changing tide, 
So human passions ebb and flow." 

We read in Young's Night Thoughts : — 

il Patience and resignation are the pillars 
Of human peace on earth." 



n Young's Night Thoughts 

f Patience 

and 
I resignation 



read 



are 
pillar; 



the 

of peace 



human 
on earth. 



Change the following complex sentences to simple ones. 

I. William Harvey, who discovered the circulation of blood, gives 
a better account of its movement through the heart than has been 
given by any other. Example. — William Harvey discovered the cir- 
culation of the blood. He gives a description of the movement of 
blood through the heart. It is better than any other description. 

2. The quail, a timid bird that lives in the vicinity of grain fields, 
has a sweet whistle, which is interpreted " more wet." 

3. There are discouragements that we all meet in attempting to 
carry out our best plans, our noblest conceptions of duty. 

4. I say that immortality is the great discovery of Christianity, be- 
cause, notwithstanding it was not wholly unknown before Christ, it 



j 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was so revealed by him as to become, to a great extent, a new doc- 
trine. 

5. Then Juclah came near unto him saying : " my Lord, let thy 
servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my Lord's ears." 

6. One who has traveled much among the lulls and mountains of 
New England, and has a sense of the beautiful, must recall with 
pleasure the silver birch, which loves the companionship of brooks and 
rocks, and stands like a graceful maiden smiling upon all around. 



LESSON XLII. 

Change these groups of simple sentences into complex sentences." 

1. It is mean to do this. You know it to be wrong. Example. 
It is mean to do this, when you know it to be wrong. Or, It is mean 
to do this, if you know it to be wrong. 

2. All have sinned. All should be humble. 

3. All may grow better. All should be hopeful. 

4. The maple is a beautiful tree. It grows in the temperate zones. 
It is put to many uses. 

5. . " Be a wlwlc man at everything." This was the advice of a 
celebrated Englishman. He said it to his son. His son was at school. 

6. There is a mighty stream in the Atlantic. In time of the 
greatest floods, it does not overflow. In the severest droughts, it does 
not fail. It moves steadily onward in face of wind and tide. This is 
the Gulf Stream. 

7. A picture hangs on the wall. It represents Horace Greeley. 
Lor many years he edited the New York Tribune. This paper has 
done much to educate the masses. 

8. The Peccaries are the wild boars of Tropical America. They 
are smaller than those of the Old World. They live in great herds. 
They defend themselves against aggressors. 

*Note. — Patience and tact may be required in this lesson. It affords a fine 
field for mutual criticism and generous emulation. It is presumed the teacher 
will extend the exercise, by introducing more difficult combinations, if the class be 
equal to it. The pupils would enjoy supplying matter, by bringing to the class 
simple sentences for their mates to combine into complex. The words that repre- 
sent the subjects of thought, should, so far as possible, form subjects, fur the com 
plex sentences. 



OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 79 

9. A thermometer may be placed under the tongue of a human 
being. It will show a temperature of about 98°. It will do this, 
whether tile surrounding air be hot or cold. 

10. The blood is a thick, opaque fluid. It varies in color from 
brilliant scarlet to dark purple. This is while it is circulating in the 
vessels. This is while it is in its natural state. 

IT. Man is strange. Nature is around him. On every side are 
her treasures. With patient hand she holds them out to him. lie 
refuses to make them his. 

12. The bread-fruit tree grows in Ceylon. Ceylon is an island 
south of Asia. The fruit of this tree is about the size of an ostrich's 
egg. It forms the staple food of the people. 

13. On his first voyage to America, Columbus was ignorant of 
the fair lands lying before him. He was weary with long waiting. 
He lay down to rest. Sleep came to him. He was wakened by a 
glad cry. The man at the look-out was shouting, — " Land ! Land !" 

14. We were becalmed at sea. We had nothing to do. We, 
therefore, hailed with bursts of pleasure the sight of a shark. He 
came near the vessel. He was not less than thirty-five feet long. He 
was likely to afford us agreeable relief from our monotonous occupa- 
tion. 

15. Man has many gifts. The noblest of these is aspiration. 
Through the possession of this, he turns from the narrow things of his 
past and present. He reaches out and up to the grander and nobler. 




PREPOSITIONS. 
LESSON XLIII. 

What is the most common four-footed animal seen in the street 
of a large city? What are some of the acts that it performs on the 
street? The street is what jf these acts? Name another act that 
has the streets for its place. The streets are what of this act ? 

Where does the sun rise ? Morning is what of the rising? The 
east is what of the rising ? 

What instruments are used in writing ? Pens are what of the 
writing? 

What instruments are used in boring holes? Axes are instruments 
of what? Needles are instruments of what? When do apples, 
peaches and pears ripen ? Autumn is what of the ripening? Of 
what are most ribbons made ? Silk is what of ribbons ? 

Of what materials are boots and shoes made? Lace is the mate- 
rial of what article of dress? What is the cause of the moving of 
leaves on the trees? The winds are what of the moving? Name a 
cause of limping; of perspiring; of crying; of running. 

In what way, or manner, do cars move when under full headway? 
Rapidity is what of the moving? 

Do you like to hear canaries sing ? How do they sing ? Sweet- 
ness is what of the singing? In what manner do ambitious pupils 
study ? Diligence is what of the studying ? 

Slowness is the manner of what act ? Soundness is the manner of 
what state? To-day is the time of what possession? To-day is the 
time of what being? 

We have learned that the morning is something to the rising of 
the sun : that silk is something to the ribbon : that pens are some- 
thing of writing: that wind is something to the moving of leaves: 
that soundness is something to sleeping. 

Because these are something to each other, we say there 
is a relation between them. 

80 



PREPOSITIONS. 8 1 

What is the street to walking? Then, what relation has the street 
to the walking? What is the pencil to the act of drawing? Then, 
what relation\\as> the pencil to the drawing? What relation has the 
eye to seeing? The sea, to sailing ? Monday, to washing? Bricks, 
to chimneys? Churches, to preaching? 

Since relations of various kinds exist between actions 
and objects, objects and objects, states and manners, etc., 
in speaking and writing, these relations should be rep- 
resented. 

James makes toys with a knife of steel. The man from 
New York speaks with ease in the morning. The tree in 
the yard was torn by the wind on Thursday. 

Study these sentences. What relation is represented as existing 
between the knife and the act of making? What relation is repre- 
sented as existing between New York city and the man? Between 
ease and speaking', what relation exists? What relation exists be- 
tween the yard and the tree? Between the wind and the tearing? 
Between Thursday and the tearing? Between steel and the knife? 

In the following, supply words that will show that relations exist 
between the acts, states and objects that are represented by words? 

We sit the window summer. The shadows 

the maples fall the grass. You must study 

earnestness. The bird the Canary Islands 

sings great sweetness. The pen gold was 

nought him money the store Mr. 

Williams. I sleep a bed straw. The rays 

the sun September shone warmth the bed 

melons. The child the cradle is crying 

pain. Isabella was the wife Ferdinand Spain. 

In these sentences you have supplied words that show what? 
Since these words show relation, they may be called what words? 

Prepositions are relation, words* 

*Note.— Verbs affirm, and subordinate conjunctions assume relations ; but the 
differences between these words and prepositions arc sufficiently clear to obviate 
eon fusion. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON XLIV. 

Find the prepositions in the following. 

Children go to school. He was hurt by the hoiL-;e. 
Kites are made of paper. The Indian loves to roam in 
the woods. The squaw stays in the wigwam and cooks 
the food. Work with a will, if you would succeed. My 
friend of talent studied with great zeal in Germany. The 
soldier of the frontier wrote with a coal on birch bark. 
He wrote to the mother of his comrade, when he knew 
he should die from the wound in his side. Those lowers 
of the Alps were painted by an artist with a brush of 
camel's hair. She injured herself, shortened her life, by 
compressing her lungs with tight garments. She was 
pitied by all. The body, as well as the soul, is a gift 
from God. 

Write sentences containing prepositions that express relations be- 
tween washing and some object. Between pleasing and some in- 
strument. Between fighting and some place. Between a horse and 
some possessor. Between a broom and an act. Between a tree and 
a place. Between working and money. Between a dress and its 
material. 

Prepositions show that relations exist between acts, 
states, possessions, beings, ownerships and objects ; but, 
in discussing, or parsing, prepositions, we say they show 
relations between the words representing the acts, &c, 
between which the relations exist. We name the relation 
that exists between the acts, &c., in such manner as to 
show whether the element formed in part by the preposi- 
tion, is adverbial, adjective, or objective ; thus, — The 
poems of Alice Carey are sweet. 

Of is a preposition, showing an adjective relation of authorship 
between Alice Carey and poems. 

In the morning, the sun shines upon the sea, and it 
glows with splendor. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



Upon is a preposition, showing an adverbial relation of place be- 
tween sea and shines. In is a preposition, showing an adverbial re- 
lation of time between morning and shines. With is a preposition 
showing an adverbial relation of manner between splendor and 
glows. In the same manner, parse the prepositions in the following 
sentences. 

He went in the morning. Our friends will come from 
Boston. The bees find honey in the flowers. In Sep- 
tember, the grapes begin to ripen. Then we shall walk 
in the garden with our friends. Be humble before the 
wise. The talent of the young man filled his friends with 
admiration. Peter and John went up together into the 
temple at the hour of prayer. The powers of his mind 
are impaired by dissipation. He acted on this occasion, 
with wisdom and prudence. The leaves on the elms 
have just come out, wooed by the warmth of the sun. 

Write sentences containing the following prepositions. The same 
prepositions may show different relations in different sentences. 
Prove this in your examples. Parse the prepositions in the sentences 
you write. 

Concerning. Into 

Behind. 

After. 

With. 

Toward. 

Over. 

Through. 

The noun or pronoun used with the preposition to 
form an element, is its object. The same preposition 
may have more than one object ; as, The cloth is made 
of silk and cotton. If the preposition and its object 
form an adjective element, the preposition shows an ad- 
jective relation : if the preposition forms a part of an 
adverbial element, it shows an adverbial relation, &c. 



Abroad. 


Before 


Up. 


About. 


To. 


Upon. 


Off. 


Unto. 


For. 


On. 


Beyond. 


From. 


At. 


By. 



Into 


Till. 


Down. 


Of. 


Below. 


During. 


Among. 


Beside. 


Within. 


Around. 


Under. 


Without. 


In. 


Past. 



o4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A preposition and its object or an infinitive, is called a 
phrase. 

What is a phrase? Find the phrases in the sentences given oil 
the preceding page, 



LESSON XLV. 

In imagination, look out upon a large body of water ; observe the 
color and motion of its surface ; see the ships sailing upon it and the 
objects upon their decks. Do you notice any animals in the air 
or water about the ships? When you have this scene clearly in 
mind, write sentences describing it. Name the prepositions em- 
ployed and state between what objects they show relations.* 

A walk up a mountain path. A barn-yard scene du- 
ring a snow storm. The burning of a house in the 
country. The burning of a house in the city. Appear- 
ance of an emigrant wagon on its way to the West. 
Monday morning in the kitchen. Saturday evening with 
father at home. Scene in a dry goods house on a busy 
day. Sights on the street when a circus is passing. 

"Note. — The teacher can so conduct this exercise as to make it exciting and prof- 
itable. By questioning different pupils about their mental pictures, she can aid 
in making them vivid : she can create a clear thought, which is the foundation of 
a clear statement. She may put to one pupil questions like the following: — 
Over what body of water are you looking? Is the day clear ? Docs the wind 
blow? Does it ruffle the water ? Does it bring a salty smell ? What calor is the 
water? Is it dazzling? What do you see on the water? Is it far off ? Is it 
moved by wind or by steam ? Why do you think so ? The kind and order of 
questions will, of course, depend upon the answers given. The teacher must cor- 
rect false notions and see that harmonious ideas are associated. It is well some- 
times to have pupils close their eyes, and then think out the details of their fan- 
cies; when this has been done, they may write. 

In a manner similar to the above, question upon the subjects jiiven. pre- 
paratory to writing sentences about them. When these have been written well,— 
when a good time has been had with them, — the pupils may study the prepositions 
used. The teacher who has never employed this method will be hnppily surprised 
at her own and her classes' interest in it. The pupils ma)- question each other 
regarding the details of their fancies. 



PREPOSITIONS. 85 

Hay-field scene on a summer day. The last day of 
school. Description of a game of ball.* 



LESSON XLVI. 

The village is situated in a narrow valley. On the 
north, the hills rise abruptly, presenting steep ledges of 
rocks, narrow, green ravines and a few somber cedars and 
hemlocks. South, the land climbs up gently by rounded 
hillocks, each one affording root for vigorous whortle- 
berry bushes and pasturage for sheep and cows. The 
drone of the grist mill may be heard nearly all day long; 
and in the late afternoon, is heard the rattle of the stage, 
as it brings the scanty mail to the post-office kept in the 
bar-room of the old tavern. 

The village, briefly described above, is in what kind of country? 
As you stand at the east end of the street, what do you see at your 
right? At your left? In front? Listening, what do you hear? On 
which side of the street is it? The mill implies what object not 
spoken of? What buildings do you see? What day of the week 
may it be? Why do you think so? Do you believe there are any 
ioafers in this town ? Why do you think so? What reasons may 
there be for the mills not being heard all day? The villagers prob- 
ably get a little money by selling what ? What in the description 
leads you to this conclusion? (Many more questions may be asked.) 

-Note.— The subjects selected should depend upon the children's familiarity 
with them . The boys may take one subject, the girls another. Doubtless many of 
us read fine descriptions of art, scenery, animals, plants, storms, battles, without 
having more than a vague image of these photographed upon the mind. We lose 
the sensations that should be produced by the writings of those who truly saw 
with their eyes, heard with their ears and understood with their hearts. 

A fine musician who sees for the first time the notes of a musical composition, 
in his mind hears all the harmonies as if they were rendered by instruments. It 
should be so with the reader of words. If the teacher do aught towards leading 
her pupils to a finer reading of sentences, not merely lip service, he is developing 
the power of true interpretation of language, which certainly comes within the 
province of grammar. Therefore, let the teacher question about the sentences 
given, in such manner as to lead to a clear mental sight of the things described . 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



LESSON XL VII. 



We watched her breathing through the night, 

Her breathing soft and low, 
As in her breast the wave of life 

Kept heaving to and fro. — Thomas Hood. 

In the above death-bed scene, Hood gives few particulars. The 
pupils should fill it out in thought. The elements that may enter 
into it are, — the room, its size, furniture, evidences of poverty or 
wealth ; the persons in the room, their appearance ; the dying one's 
age, features, signs of length of illness, &c. The completed picture 
should be represented by spoken or written sentences. Spoken 
compositions should alternate with written. 

" Walking abroad in these pleasant evenings, many a 
little sparrow's nest one finds low down in the bayberry 
bushes, — smooth, brown cups of woven grass, wherein lie 
the five speckled eggs, each full of silent music, each 
dumb miracle waiting for the finger of God to waken, to 
be alive, to drink the sunshine and the breeze, to fill the 
air with blissful sound." — Among the Isles of Shoals. 

" The breaking waves dash'd high 

On a stern and rock-bound coast, 
And the woods against a stormy sky, 

Their giant branches toss'd." — Landi?ig of the Pilgrims. 

Question about appearance of coast at this time, character of men 
and women on the ships ; object in coming to New England. How 
could the branches toss against the sky? Is the scene clearly in the 
mind? 

" The loon's long, wild, melancholy cry before a storm 
is the most awful note I ever heard from a bird. It is so 
sad, so hopeless — a clear, high shriek, shaken, as it drops 
into silence, into broken notes that make you think of 
the fluttering of a pennon in the wind, — a shudder of a 
sound." — Isles of Shoals. 

Do these words help you form a clear idea of the sound of this sea 
bird? Can you give a cry like its? 



PREPOSITIONS. 87 

LESSON XLVIII. 

The following is a description of old women — wives of fishermen 
who years ago w?re drowned in the sea. How sorry the picture! 
Do you clearly see the women? Why are their mouths sunken, 
and their eyes used only for gathering brine? What objects are 
probably about them in the rooms where they sit? Of what are they 
probably thinking? 

" I never saw such wrecks of humanity as some of the 
old women of Star Island. In my childhood I caught 
glimpses of them occasionally, their lean, brown shapes 
crouching over the fire ; with black pipes in their sunken 
mouths, and hollow eyes of no use now but to gather 
brine ; and rough, gray, straggling locks ; despoiled and 
hopeless visions, it seemed as if youth and joy could nev- 
er have been theirs." — Isles of Shoals. 

It was Miss Murdstone who had arrived, and a gloomy 
looking lady she was ; dark, like her brother, whom she 
greatly resembled in face and voice ; and with very heavy 
eyebrows, very nearly meeting over her large nose, as if, 
being disabled by the wrongs of her sex from wearing 
whiskers, she had carried them to that account. — Charles 
Dickens* 

*Note. — If the pupils thoroughly appreciate the above descriptions, the}- can 
and should reproduce them in their own language. The habit of thinking down 
to the bottom of an author's descriptions will stimulate them to think to the bottom 
of a chosen subject ; then they will be ready to talk and write upon it. Descrip- 
tive games maybe had, which will create as much interest as riddles and puzzles. 
The teacher may choose a subject and have all the class write upon it. The efforts 
may be compared, criticised, improved ; the fitness of words observed, and, as a con- 
clusion, the writings of one or more good authors upon the same subject may be 
read. I recall a class of boys, who in the heat of the ball season, used to tease 
their teacher to shorten their recesses that there might be time for such an exer- 
cise. Doubtless that teacher understood the art of preparing the strong meat of 
grammar for, and seasoning it to,the capacity and taste of her boys. 




COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

LESSON XLIIL. 

James goes to school, but Mary studies at home. 
Alexis found flo./ers, and he pressed them for his friend. 
We must give our attention to health, or our girls will be 
weak. Fanny gave me a rabbit, but he ran away. In- 
sects destroy crops; b'irds devour insects ; and man kills 
the birds. The kangaroo is a marsupial ; the elephant is 
a pachyderm ; the cow is a ruminant : the hyena is a car- 
nivore ; and the rat is a rodent. 

" The clouds may drop down titles and estates, 
Wealth may seek us ; but wisdom must be sought." 

Rise early, and take exercise in plenty. 

Study the preceding sentences. Read the propositions in each 
separately. Does the last proposition in either sentence belong to 
any word in the other propositions ? Does the first proposition be- 
long to any word in the other propositions? Are there any adjective 
propositions in the above? Why? Any adverbial? Why? Any 
objective ? Why ? Read the first proposition of the first sentence. 
Does it seem to express a thought by itself? Read the last? Does 
it express a thought by itself? Read the first proposition of the sec- 
ond sentence. Does it express a thought ? Read the second. Does 
it express a thought? Read each proposition in each sentence. 
Does each express a thought by itself? Since each proposition ex- 
presses a thought by itself, and is not adjective, adverbial, or ob- 
jective, do you think there are any subordinate propositions in the 
sentences? Are there any that are dependent? Since no one is de- 
pendent, how is each ? How many propositions in each of the above 
sentences? What kind? 

SS 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 8y 

A sentence that contains more than one independent 
proposition, is compound. 

What is a compound sentence? Write a compound sentence 
that contains two propositions. Write one that contains three ; one 
that contains four ; one that contains one. 

Make of each of your compound sentences, as many simple sen- 
tences as there are propositions in each. In doing this, what words 
do you omit? In the compound sentences, what do these words 
connect? 

Since these words connect, they are connectors. 

Read the connectors in the sentences. Write compound sentences 
in which the propositions will be connected by the connectors, — and, 
or, likewise, but, neither — nor, both — and, still. Connect any two, or 
more, of the following propositions in such manner as to form com- 
pound sentences. 

The horse is very fast. He can trot a mile in two and 
one-third minutes. Henry was afraid. He would not 
own it. Martin desired to study law. Mary hoped to 
learn painting. They were both too poor. The horse 
has a single hoof. The ox has a divided hoof. There 
were strange birds in the cage. Curious monkeys grinned 
behind the bars. Great snakes slowly moved their flat- 
tened heads. One could but feel that he was in a tropi- 
cal world. 

Find the compound sentences in the selections in the preceding 
chapter. 



LESSON L. 

ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

The good man is dead, and many hearts mourn to-day. 

These words affirm a thought by two independent propositions ; 
hence, the sentence is compound. 

The good mail is dead, is the first proposition. Many hearts mourn 
to-day, is the second proposition. 

Of the first proposition, The good man is the complex subject ; 
is dead \?, the simple predicate. To man, the simple subject, belong 



9<-) ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Tlie and good, adjective elements denoting that some particular man 
is meant, and moral character. Of the second proposition, many 
hearts is the complex subject ; mourn to-day is the complex predicate. 
To hearts, the simple subject, belongs many, an adjective element 
denoting indefinite number. To mourn, the simple predicate, be- 
longs to-day, an adverbial element denoting time. The two prop- 
ositions are connected by the connector and. 



ORDER OF ANALYSIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Kind of sentences. 

First proposition. 

Second proposition. 

Third proposition. 

Each proposition analyzed as a simple sentence. 

Connectors named. 

Diagram form for compound sentences. 

f 1 The 

1 man , 

I good 

is 

j dead, 

rand 
hearts | many 



mourn | to-day. 
Analyze by each method, the following sentences. 

On Wabash Avenue, omnibuses are used- but on State 
Street, horse-cars are numerous. Years ago, travelers as- 
cended Mount Washington on horse-back, but now car- 
riages go to the summit. You may analyze the blue for- 
get-me-not, or you can examine the delicate mosses. He 
would admit the animal, but denied the vegetable. The 
young polyp of the reef-building species, buds from its 
parent, and many have, wrongly, called the coral a veg- 
etable. The clear brook sings over the stones, the flow- 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. Cj I 

ers bend their heads over its edge, and the birds sing 
from joy. 

In the above, name the classes of words. Read each subject. 
Each objective element. Each object of a preposition. Name the 
nouns and pronouns that denote possession. Parse the prepositions 
in full. Name the connectors. 



CO-ORDINATE CONNECTORS. 

LESSON LI. 

Apple peach blossoms are white red. The 

lady gentleman speak easily directly. The 

books are on the table in the drawer. I saw a boy 

riding a galloping pacing horse. You I can 

talk — —read. The gopher ran in out of the mound. 

Geo. F. Root writes music, his children play . 

Use words in the above blanks that will connect the elements be- 
tween which they are placed. What classes of words are connected? 
Read the phrases that are connected. The propositions. 

Are the parts connected, of like, or of unlike, rank? Have the 
connected parts a like, or an unlike, use in the sentences? 

The elements of a sentence that are alike in rank and 
use, are co-ordinate. 

The term co-ordinate means equal in rank, or order. Name the 
co-ordinate elements of the above examples. The connectors that 
you have supplied, connect what kind of elements, thinking of rank 
and use? Since these words connect co-ordinate elements, they are 
what kind oi connectors? What is a co-ordinate connector? 

In the above, name the co-ordinate connectors, and also the ele- 
ments they connect ; thus, and is a co-ordinate connector, connecting 
the adjectives, apple and peach. 

Write a sentence containing a co-ordinate connector joining two 
nouns; another, containing one joining two verbs; another, one 
joining two adverbs ; another, one joining two- participles ; another, 
one joining two infinitive-. ; another, one joining two propositions. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 
LESSON LII. 

Cats and dogs are domestic animals. The sun warms 
and lights. The General was cool, brave and energetic, 
He moved quickly and wisely. Do all men like honesty, 
simplicity and purity ? The musician plays with skill 
and taste. Many persons ruin character by lying and 
maligning. He gained his purpose "by hook or by 
crook." 

Read the co-ordinate elements in the above. Read the co-oixli- 
nate connectors. Which co-ordinate elements are principal? Which 
are objective ? Which are adjective? Which are adverbial? 

A compound element consists of two or more co-ordinate 
elements. 

Name the compound elements in the following ; thus, Mary and 
William, the subject, consists of co-ordinate parts ; hence, it is com- 
pound. Flowers and fruits, the object of loir, consists of co-ordi- 
nate parts ; hence, it is compound. 

Mary and William go to school. The children love 
flowers and fruits. You and I will read together. The 
tree is tall and graceful. The river moves calmly and 
quietly. You must pay gold or silver. Mr. Jones in- 
structs boys and girls. Not James, but John, came. The 
dove coos, and coos, and then flies away. Letha and 
Wilbur are good children. I love and respect them. It 
is neither cold nor hot. Mrs. Elkey, who was a strong 
and vigorous slave in her youth, was free in her old age. 
The children of the bad frequently love low sports, but 
they may enjoy music, lectures and books. 92 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 93 

LESSON LIII. 

Tell what each co-ordinate connector in the preceding examples 
does ; thus, And connects Mary and William, nouns of the same 
rank and use ; hence, it is a co-ordinate connector. 

Write a sentence containing a compound, adjective element, 
found in a subordinate adjective proposition. Write a compound 
subject for a subordinate, adverbial proposition. Write a simple sen- 
tence with a compound subject. Write a simple sentence with a 
compound predicate. Write a simple sentence containing a com- 
pound, adverbial element. Write a compound sentence that con- 
tains a compound, objective element. A complex sentence that con- 
tains i compound, adjective proposition. Write an adjective propo- 
sition containing a compound, adjective element. Write an adverb- 
ial proposition containing a compound, adjective element. Write an 
adjective proposition containing a compound, adverbial element. 
Write a sentence containing a compound subject and predicate, and 
compound objective, adjective and adverbial elements.* 

Classify the following sentences as simple, complex or compound. 
Give the reason for each classification. 

Charles Dickens, who wrote David Copperfield and 
many other novels, died in 1871. Dick came over the 
hills with Winnie, but he did not return with her. I will, 
by the strength of my hand. All happiness has an end. 
Without comment, I passed the paper to him, and w r atched 
to see the result. When our ships sailed among the 
eastern islands, the inhabitants did not ask for gold, but 
for iron. " The books and pictures are extras," said the 
happy fellow. I recollect that it was neither day nor 
night. " Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice." 
"Take each man's censure, but reserve thy judgment." 
"The apparel oft proclaims the man." Combustion is 
the great source of artificial heat, and the sun is the 
great source of natural heat. Nearly all bodies expand 
when their temperature is increased, and contract when 

*Lct the teacher " ring changes" on the various elements, and stimulate the 
class to rapid and graceful writing. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

it is reduced. Matter cannot be destroyed, but it may 
change its form. The happiness and misery of human 
life are made up of trifles. 

" The learned pate 
Ducks to the golden fool." 

No man is rich whose expenditures exceed his means; 
and no man poor, whose incomings exceed his outgoings. 
While you sit in the chimney-corner with folded arms, 
do not expect the world's patronage. Self-confidence 
makes ability available. Kindness of manner makes po- 
liteness. 

Analyze the above. 




SUBORDINATE CONNECTORS. 

LESSON LIV. 

The trees will be brilliant the frost comes. There 

was mourning in the land, a great battle was fought. 



The man said the good are blessed. I am sad 

I see the good falter. I have bought a book you 

may read it. We enjoy roaming the fields, a friend 

is with us. The woman's life was so noble a/1 were 

made better by it. Can you see John is doing ? 

The Indians held a solemn council, they declared 

war. 

Use such connectors between the above propositions as will con- 
vert the last in each line, into a subordinate proposition. After sup- 
plying the connectors, what kind of sentences will be formed? 
Why? To what class of subordinate propositions, adjective, adverb- 
ial, or objective, does each of the above belong? To what word in 
the principal, does each subordinate proposition belong? Read the 
words that connect each subordinate proposition to the word to 
which it belongs. 

Are the connectors co-ordinate? Why? What name could be 
given them, since they connect subordinate propositions to the word 
to which the propositions belong? 

A subordinate connector is one that connects a 
subordinate proposition to the word to which it belongs. 

If the subordinote proposition be adjective, the con- 
nector is subordinate adjective. 

If the subordinate proposition be adverbial, the con- 
nector is subordinate adverbial. 

If the subordinate proposition be objective, the connect- 
or is subordinate objective. 

Classify the above connectors. 95 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

I love the flower that blooms in the field. He said 
that the battle was lost. The baby rides if it be pleas- 
ant. I work, because I wish to earn money. I work for 

, I work when . I work as well as . I 

work as far as . I work as long as -. I work 

that . I work after . I work before . I 

work till . I work if . I work since . I 

work though . I work as . I work just as 

. I work more than . I enjoy the speaker 

who . 

Write the proper subordinate propositions after the above subor- 
dinate connectors. 

What is denoted by each proposition you have supplied? To 
what element is each added ? To what class of subordinate propo- 
sitions does each belong ? 

Tell what each subordinate connector does ; thus, That connects 
blooms in the field, a subordinate, adjective proposition, to the noun 
flower ; hence, it is a subordinate, adjective connector. 

That connects the battle was lost, a subordinate, objective propo- 
sition, to the verb said ; hence, it is a subordinate, objective con- 
nector. 

If connects it be pleasant, a subordinate adverbial proposition, to 
the verb rides ; hence, it is a subordinate adverbial connector. 

Co-ordinate and subordinate connectors are con- 
junctions. 

What is a conjunction? What is a co-ordinate conjunction? 
What is a subordinate conjunction? 



INTERJECTIONS. 



LESSON LV. 



Hurrah ! the boy is saved. Alas ! the sad days are 
come. Pshaw ! I think it is too bad. Hush ! the moth- 
er is coming. I went, and oh ! it was fine, Ah ! you 
here? Ha, ha, he, he, that's good ! 

What feeling seems to be expressed in the first sentence? in the 
second? in the third? in each of the others? 

Read the single words that express the emotion. Omit these 
vords, and read the sentences. Do the sentences express the same 
feeling, or the same amount of it, without these words? 

A word that expresses strong or sudden feeling, or emo- 
tion, is an interjection. 

The word interjection means thrown between. Interjections are 
not always thrown between the parts of a sentence, but they are 
thrown into it, not for the purpose of expressing a thought, but for 
the purpose of expressing a feeling. They are not connected in any 
way to the other parts of a sentence. 

What is an interjection? 

Write different sentences containing various interjections, expres- 
sing emotions of joy, surprise, terror, contempt, love, hate, amuse- 
ment, &c. Observe the punctuation marks that are used in connec- 
tion with interjections. Use the interjection oh in a sentence that 
expresses joy , in one that expresses pain ; in one that expresses sor- 
row ; in one that expresses contempt ; in one that expresses awe ; in 
one that expresses reverence. 97 



gS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

LESSON LVI. 

The pupil is now familiar with the outlines of technical grammar. 
The following exercises are introduced to enlarge his vocabulary, 
to tax his ingenuity, to develop his power of criticism, and to 
lead him to write more difficult and more elegant sentences. He 
must be required to use the dictionary freely. Selections from read- 
ing books and from geographies may be assigned as lessons, about 
which questions that review Part I. should be asked. The pupil 
should often reproduce these selections in his own language, and 
his attention should constantly be called to the manner in which they 
are punctuated. 

Give words that have the same, or nearly the same, meaning as 
the following. 

Volume. Depart. Delicate. 

Grow. Building. Atmosphere. 

Allow. Surrender,, Individual. 

Farmer. Acquire. Encourage. 

Height. Flow. Understand. 

Ex. — Conquer ; subdue, vanquish, overcome, overthrow, overpow- 
er, defeat, rout, surmount, crush, subject, master. 

Let the above words be used in spoken sentences. Use their 
synonyms in spoken sentences. 



Conquer. 


Small. 


Surround. 


Brief. 


Virtuous. 


See. 


Seldom. 


Adorn 


Accomplish. 


End. 



LESSON LVIL 

Give words that are opposite in meaning to the following. Use 
each word and its opposite in a spoken sentence. 
High. Intemperate. Wise. Wicked. Mean. 

Hot. Unjust. Pure. Obedient. Slow. 

Grief. Venturesome. Kind. Faithful. Fear. 

Melt. Correct. Pride. Reproof. Seldom. 

Go, Pleasure. Laughing. Direct. Never. 

Ex. — High ; low. 

Include the first and the second of the following words in a sen- 
tence. The third and the fourth in another. So continue. 
Ale. Bee. Seed. Altar. Wave. 

A L Be, Cede, Alter. Waive. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



90 



Aught. 




Please. 


Cell. 


Berry. 


Tract. 


Ought. 




Pleas. 


Sell. 


Bury. 


Tracked. 


Ball. 




Bred. 


Clime. 


Medal. 


Team. 


Bawl. 




Bread. 


Climb. 


Meddle. 


Teem. 


Ex.- 


-Drin 


king too 


much ale is what 


ails him. 





LESSON LVIII. 



Express by two or more words the ideas conveyed by each of the 
following. 

Andes. 

Barbarous 

School. 

Educate. 

Healthy. 



Money, 

Horse. 

Christmas. 

City. 

Dollar. 



Illegal. Byron. Andes. Equator. 

Servant. Wealth. Barbarous Child. 

Oranges. Webster. School. Soldier. 

Warm. Shoes. Educate. Doctor. 

River. Doctor. Healthy. Umbrella. 

Ex. — Illegal ; not lawful, not according to law. 
What is the difference between the words in each of the follow- 
couplets? Use each of the following words in a spoken sentence. 

Telegram and telegraph. Mist and shower. 

Collect and receive. Die and decay. 

Pretty and splendid. Aged and infirm. 

Perpendicular and vertical. Learn and teach. 

Expect and dread. Expect and suspect. 

Red and pink. Affect and effect. 

Ex. — To telegraph is to send a message by telegraph. A telegi-am 
is a message sent by telegraph.. 



LESSON LVIV. 

Write simple, complex and compound sentences about each ob 
ject represented by the following nouns. 
Jackson. Bridge. Snow. Caila. 

Fuchsia. Artist. Marble. Sun. 

Ex. — Jackson was a general. Jackson, who was 



fended New Orleans. General Jackson was 
fought nobly in defending New Orleans. 



Beggar. 
Paper, 
a general, de- 
brave man, and he 



IOO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Vary the following sentences by transposing the parts. 

" O mother," said the beautiful child, " see the rosy-checked 
apples." The good hearted man put a strong, iron fence about the 
grave yard, As you grow older, you should grow better, The little 
girl spoke to the tall man under the trembling poplars. One of the 
most common faults in composition, is repetition. After you iron 
your apron, fold it neatly and lay it in the drawer. In the corner of 
the park, substantially built of stone, is the hunter's lodge. Aunt 
Sarah, another single lady, was a dear and honored friend of my 
own. The hard question, to go or stay, he has not yet settled. To 
this company, gathered at that time from every part of the state, the 
great orator spoke. The faithful dog homeward turns the belated 
herd. 

Ex. — The beautiful child said : " O mother, see that rosy-cheeked 
apple." The rosy-cheeked child said : " O mother, see that beauti- 
ful apple." Said the child : " See that beautiful, rosy-cheeked apple, 
O mother." 



LESSON LX. 

In the following, substitute words for the italicized phrases and 
propositions. 

Men who are industrious, deserve io be successful. At the time 
that was appointed, the gentleman who was plainly dreesed and elo- 
quent, addressed the audience, which was very attentive. By con- 
sidering the subjects one by one, you can understand them with ease. 
That man of poverty -who begs, is without home and without friends. 
In thoughts that breathe and words that burn. Those that possess 
wealth should not look with disdain upon those that are poor. Do 
not give me a horse that stumbles, if you have one that is sound. 

A pot that -was made of brass, and one that was made of earth, 
standing in company upon the brink of a river, were both carried 
away by the tide, which was flowing rapidly. The pot that was 
made of earth, showed that he had some uneasiness lest he might be 
broken ; but his companion thai was made of brass, bid him have no 
fear, saying : *' I will keep you from coming to any harm!' 

Ex. — Industrious men deserve success. 



MISCELLANEOUS. IOI 

LESSON LXI. 

In the following, include the words of the first group in a simple 
sentence. Include those of the second ; those of the third. Include 
the words of the fourth in a complex sentence ; those of the fifth ; 
those of the sixth. Include those of the seventh in a compound sen- 
tence; those of the eighth ; those of the ninth. 

1. Amount, neighborhood, week, supplied, old, virtue. 

2. Duty, mysterious, painful, record, Toby, sudden, is, disap- 
peared. 

3. Mr. Smith, son, brought, Boston, occasion, ripe, marriage. 

4. Things, frivolous, consequence, will prove, slight, which, 
seem, serious. 

5. London, poet, great, 1608, John Milton, bom, men, house, of, 
father's. 

6. Joseph, kitchen, as, sat, speech, precipitately, where, vanished, 
finished, upon, he, dresser. 

7. Mate, wings, sings, feels, heart, eggs, flutters. 

8. Happiness, miracle, is, God, world, Father, good, splendor, 
all. 

9. Alexandrian, irreparable, burning, loss, library, great, greater, 
silence, minds, peculiar. 



LESSON LXIL 

Avoid unnecessary repetition of words. In describing one thing, 
do not use different words of nearly the same meaning. 

Correct the following. 

Lurton walked away down the gallery from Albert'.-, cell, and 
descended the steps that led to the dining room, and was let out of 
the locked and barred door into the vestibule, and out of that into 
the yard, and thence out through other locks into the free air of out- 
doors. And likewise let me talk also of these -great, big, immense 
trees of California. The shiny, glossy leaves constantly tremble 
and shake the whole day long. He staid one day with John ; staid 
half a day with Henry ; staid a week at Sai-atoga ; and staid the re- 
maining part of the time that was left, at the White Mountains. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Moreover, exercise, furthermore, gives to the whole face and to the 
cheeks such a fair delicate color. 

Painful remorse and unrest of mind come through disobedience 
and transgression of law and rule. He had but little wealth, but 
nobody but those unacquainted with him, could say but he had abili- 
ty to accumulate it. 

This benevolent and generous friend encourages us to do and to 
perform those acts that are right and good, and to refrain and to ab- 
stain from any and every act that is wrong and bad. Morality is 
simple, easy to comprehend ; and, therefore, without difficulty, easily 
definable to the comprehension of all and everybody. I am very 
much delighted that this very highly and exceedingly interesting gen- 
tleman, will give us the very great pleasure of listening to his very 
learned lecture. 



LESSON LXIII. 

Change the following italicized elements to simpler and therefore 
better expressions. 

Henry, having ridden upon the back of his steed all day, was filled 
with weariness, and was glad to dismount and attach his steed to a tree. 
The expounder of holy writ contemplates commencing the erection of 
his mansion at no remote period. Have you received an epistle from 
your friend? I rejoice exceedingly that your health is restored. Will 
you render my boots lustrous? They extracted the food roots from the 
bowels of tlie earth. The diminutive edifice was destroyed by the rag- 
ing element. The o) i b of day has ascended. I regret I cannot accept 
your hospitality. I have an excessive desire for food. 

Write a sentence containing adjectives that give the most marked 
characteristics of sponge ; — stone ; — a pine tree ; — an oak ; — a palm ; 
— a pumpkin ; — an orange ; — a sunflower ; — a violet ; — an e-agle ; — 
a humming bird ; — a baby ; — a soldier ; — Napoleon Bonaparte ; — 
Abraham Lincoln ;— a lion ; — a rabbit ; — a glass ; — whale-bone ; — 
water ; — brandy. 

Ex. — Sponge is a light, brown, compressible, elastic, porous, ani- 
mal substance.* 

*Note. — For the purpose of increasing the pupil's vocabulary, object lessons 
may be introduced here, or at an earlier stage. 



MISCELLANEOUS. I03 

Combine the words in each of the following group., so as to make 
a continuous story. 

1. Mother, printing, learn, Alfred the Great, illuminated, to 
read, tutor, sought, won, book, proud. 

2. Boy, acorn, small, tree, planted, shade, old, enjoyed, man, 
grew. 

3. Oppressed, Indians, taxes, harbor, ships, England, dressed, 
Boston tea-pot. 

4. Bostcn, Franklin, trade, brother, dispute, ran, Philadelphia, 
rolls, arm. 

5. Dog, crossing, flesh, mouth, another, shadow, greed)-, jumped 
in, sunk, lost. 

6. Couple, frogs, sultry, dried up, travel, water, search, deep, 
well, consult, leap, one, plenty, clear, danger, dog, again, never get out. 

Ex. — Alfred the Great had, — as most men who grow up to be 
great and good are generally found to have had, — an excellent moth- 
er ; and one day, this lady, whose name was Osburgha, happened, as 
she was sitting among her sons, to read a book of Saxon poetry. 
The art of printing was not known until long after that period, 
and the book, which was written, was what is called " illumi- 
nated^ with beautiful, bright letters richly painted. The brothers 
admiring it very much, their mother said : " I will give it to that one 
of you four princes who first learns to read!' 

Alfred sought out a tutor that very day, applied himself to learn 
with great diligence, and soon won the book. He was proud of it all 
his life. — Child's History of England. 



LESSON LXIV. 

Read the following story very carfully, then put away your book 
and write, in your own words, as much of it as you can.* 

How Agoonack, the Esquimaux Sister, Lives through the 
Long Sunshine. — It is almost noon one day, when Agoonack's 
mother wraps the little girl in her shaggy clothes, and climbs with 

*Note.— If the whole selection be too long for one lesson, part may be given 
at once. The pupils should criticise this description — telling what they like and 
what they dislike, and why. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

her a hill, promising a pleasant sight, when they shall have reached 
the tcp. 

It is the sua, the beautiful, bright, round sun, which shines and 
smiles at them for a minute, and then slips away again below the far 
frozen water. 

They haven't seen him for many months, and now they rejoice — 
for the next day he comes again and stays longer, and the next, and 
the next, and every day longer and longer, until, at last, he moves 
above them in one great, bright circle, and does not even go away at 
all at night. His warm rays melt the snow and awaken the few 
hardy flowers that can grow in this short summer. The icy coat 
breaks away from the clear, running water, and great flocks of birds, 
with soft, white plumage, come, like a snow storm of great feathery 
flakes, and settle among the black rocks along the sea shore ; here 
they lay their eggs in many safe little corners and shelves of the rock, 
and here they circle about in the sunshine, while the Esquimaux 
boys make ready their long- handled nets, and creep and climb out 
upon the ledges of rock, and holding up the net as the birds fly by, 
catch a net full to carry home for supper. 

The sun shines all day long, and all night long, too ; and yet he 
cannot melt all the highest snow drifts, where the boys are playing bat- 
and-ball, — long bones for sticks, an odd little round one for a ball. 

The seals swim by in the clear water, and the walrus and her 
young one are at play, and, best of all, the good reindeer has come ; 
for the sun has uncovered the crisp moss upon which he feeds, and 
he is roaming through the valleys where it tows among the rocks. 

The old men sit on the rocks, in the sunshine, and laugh and sing, 
and tell long stories of the whale and the seal. Little Agoonack 
comes from her play to crouch among the rocky ledges and to listen 
to the stories. She has no books ; and if she had, she could not read 
them ; neither could her father nor her mother read to her. Their 
stones are told and sung, but never written. 

And now, day by day, the sun is slipping away from them ; gone 
for a few minutes to-day, to-morrow it will stay away a few more, un- 
til at last there are many hours of rosy twilight, and few, very few, 
of clear sunshine. 

But the children are happy ; they do not dread the winter. It is 
very cold, to be sure ; but there are happy children there, and kind 
fathers and mothers, and the merriest sliding en the very best of ire 
and snow. — Seven Little Sisters. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 105 

LESSON LXV. 

The teacher may read this poem with the class, questioning them 
to see that every part is understood. When this has been thoroughly 
done, the pupils should write the story in their own language. If the 
poem be too difficult, the teacher should substitute another. 

THE ORIGIN OF DIMPLES. 

One morning in the blossoming May, 

A child was sporting 'mongst the flowers. 

Till, wearied out with his restless play, 

He laid him down to dream away 

The long and scorching noontide hours. 

At length an angel's unseen form 

Parted the air with a conscious thrill, 

And poised itself, like a presence warm, 

Above the boy, who was slumbering still. 

Never before had so fair a thing 

Stayed the swift speed of his shining wing ; 

And, gazing down, with a wonder rare 

On the beautiful face of the dreamer there, 

The angel stooped to kiss the child, 

When, lo ! at the touch the baby smiled — 

And just where the unseen lips had pressed, 

A dimple lay in its sweet unrest, 

Sporting upen his cheek of rcse 

Like a ripple waked from its light repose 

On a streamlet's breast when the soft wind blows 

And the angel passed from the sleeping one, 

For his .r.ission to earth that day was done. 

A fair face bent above the boy ; 

It nuir.t have been the boy's own mother, 
For never would such pride and joy 

Have lit the face of any other. 
And while she gazed the quiet air 
Grew tremulous with a whispered prayer ; 
And now it ceased, and the boy awoke, 
And a smile of love o'er his features broke. 
The mother marked, with a holy joy 
The dimpling cheek of her darling boy, 
And caught him up, while a warm surprise 
Stole like a star to her midnight eyes ; 
And she whispered low, as she gently smiled, 
" I know an angel has kissed my child." 

— C. A. Briggs 

Other piece- of prose and poetry should be chosen for :-:eari 111,-5 
and reproduction. 



IOO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL REVIEW. 

LESSON LXVI. 

Define a sentence ; language. Classify sentences according to 
the number and kinds of propositions they contain. Classify sen- 
tences according to their use as a whole. 

Define and illustrate simple subject ; simple predicate ; complex 
subject ; complex predicate ; subordinate elements ; analysis ; copula ; 
attribute ; proposition ; adverbial element ; objective element ; phrase. 
Give general rule for arranging sentences in diagram. 

Define a simple sentence ; a complex sentence ; compound sen- 
tence ; declarative sentence ; interrogative sentence ; imperative 
sentence ; exclamatory sentence. 

What are the essential parts of a sentence? Which of these may 
be unexpressed? Define simple subject ; simple predicate ; complex 
subject ; complex predicate. 

What is an adjective element? Why do adjective elements be- 
long to nouns and pronouns? Why are they subordinate elements? 
What ideas may they express? What is the resemblence between 
adjective elements and adjectives? What are the differences? 

What is an adverb? What is an adverbial element? Name five 
ideas expressed by adverbial elements. 

Define objective elements. 

Define noun ; pronoun ; adjective ; verb ; adverb ; participle ; in- 
finitive ; preposition ; conjunction ; subordinate conjunction ; co- 
ordinate conjunction. 

Which of these must be in simple predicate? Which may be? 
Which usually forms the simple subject? W T hat term is given to the 
emotional words? What does that word mean? What are co-ordi- 
nate elements? 

Give rules for use of period ; interrogation mark ; exclamation 
mark ; for punctuating a series ; for punctuating essential adjective 
propositions ; parenthetical adjective propositions ; adverbial propo- 
sitions. Write a description of the town in which you live. Let the 
description contain all the parts of speech, classes of elements, prop- 
ositions and sentences. Introduce the punctuation marks, illustrating 
their uses as far as discussed. 



PART II. 



We have learned that our language contains various 
classes of words. These are called the parts of 
speech. 

The parts of speech are the Noun, the Pronoun, the 
Adjective, the Verb, the Participle, the Infinitive, the 
Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction and the Inter- 
jection. 

By some, all verbal words, — verbs, participles and infinitives, — are classed 
under the head of verbs. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 
A noun is the name of an object. 

Name the nouns in the following words. In one column write 
those nouns that are names of large streams of water ; in another, 
those that are names of large collections of buildings and persons ; so 
continue, making as many columns as there are classes of objects 
represented. Over each column, write the name of the class of objects. 

Stream; Ohio; Missouri; bluffs; fellow; town; 
lion; Anna; Alexander; New York; Mary; Alps; 
sea ; hills ; Fanny Howard ; Mississippi ; dog ; men ; 
Indian; maid; ocean; Carnivora; city ; Rhine; Chicago; 
Hudson; Ruminantia ; Lucy; river; Charles; girl; gen- 
tleman ; cow ; Pacific ; maiden ; Andes ; male, 

107 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Study the first column. Read each noun that is a name given to 
each one of that class. As you read, describe the words ; thus, The 
noun stream is a name given to each one of a class of objects. Read 
and describe the nouns that are names of particular objects of a class ; 
thus, The noun New. York is a name given to a. particular object 
of a class. The noun Alps is a name given to a particular class. 

A proper noun is a name given to a particular one of 
a class or to a particular class ; as, Mary, Alfred. 

A common noun is a name given to each one of a 
class ; as, knife, boy, town. 

Name the proper nouns and the common nouns in the columns, 
giving the reasons for your classification ; thus, Anna is a name 
given to a particular, object of a class ; hence, it is a proper noun. 
Maiden is a name given to each one of a class ; hence, it is a com- 
mon noun. 

A noun usually common, becomes proper when used to designate 
an individual of a class. Ex. — When in Boston, I enjoy the Com- 
mon. The Park adds to the comfort of thousands. The Old South 
Church of Boston. Flee to the arm of Justice. 

A noun usually proper, becomes common when used to denote 
each one of a class, or when it implies others of the same class. 
Ex. — He is the Washington of these days, — i. e., the soldier and 
statesman. 

Name and classify the nouns in the following: 

Beauty dwells in the seas ; in the mountain fastnesses 
that the eye of man has never seen ; on plains across 
which there is no human path. Flower, shell and cryst/al 
speak of her. Man may or may not hear their voices. 
Are you thoughtful ? Approach to hear. The poets, 
Whittier, Browning, Bryant and Lowell, have better ears 
than we. 

In the above, name the parts of speech ; the simple subjects and 
predicates ; the adjective propositions ; the adjective, adverbial and 
objective elements. What does each element denote? 

In the following, name the participles and infinitives that are used 
as subjects ; as objective elements ; as objects of prepositions. Read 
the nouns that are names of qualities ; that are names of states. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. IO9 

Pride goeth before a fall. Riding over the hills is 
pleasant. To sing was her delight. Honesty is the best 
policy. The foolish boy was injured by jumping. To be 
is joy. Larks love singing. Rest should come after toil. 
Dancing is carried to excess by the thoughtless. 

Participles and infinitives used as nouns, and as the names 
of qualities, states, and actions, are abstract nouns. 

Abstract, from Abs, from, and tractum drawn, means drawn from. 

In the above examples, we seem to think and to speak of the 
acts, attributes, &c , as drawn from, or apart from, the objects which 
act, or which possess qualities. 

Since participles and infinitives are verbal words, when 
used as nouns, they are called verbal nouns,, 

Read the verbal nouns in the above examples. 

In the following, name the nouns that denote a collection of 
objects. 

When James goes to California, he will see a herd of 
buffaloes. The school that I attended in winter was large. 
I enjoyed feeding the flock of sheep better than being 
fed. The class laughed at the mistake. The population 
was chiefly from New England. 

Since these nouns represent collections, what kind of nouns may 
we call them? Give nouns that would represent more than one col- 
lection of the kinds mentioned above. 

A collective noun is one that in the singular form 
represents more than one. Ex. — Family, Society, swarm. 

f Proper. 

I 
Nouns. \ ( abstract. 

I Common -< verbal. 
[_ ( collective. 

Write this diagram from memory, and use it as an aid in recalling 
and in reciting the important points that have been considered. 

Classify the nouns in the following, — first state what each noun 
represents, and, because of this, to what class it belongs. 



HO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Vesuvius stands about ten miles south-east of Naples, 
in Southern Italy. Seen from the city, it is a mountain 
with two summits. Between the two summits is a valley, 
at the entrance to which, on a plateau, are situated the 
Hermitage and the Observatory. The mountain stands 
on the plain of Campania, and has a base of some thirty 
miles in circumference. 

The family is scattered to all parts of the world. Do 
the members enjoy roaming better than living a quiet 
life at home ? 

God sent his singers upon earth 
With songs of sadness and of mirth, 
That they might touch the hearts of men, 
And sing them back to heaven again. 

Just above yon sandy bar 

As the day grows fainter and dimmer. 

Lonely and lovely, a single star 

Lights the air with a dusky glimmer ; 

Into the ocean faint and far 
Falls the trail of its golden splendor, 

And the gleam of that single stal- 
ls ever refulgent, soft and tender. 

— Longfelloiv, 

Observe the sentences in this chapter. With what kind of let- 
ters do the proper nouns begin ? It is always so. Each line 
of poetry begins with what kind of letter ? Each sentence begins 
with what kind of letter ? 

The pronoun I and the interjection O are always 
capitals. 

In the Lessons in Language, you learned that direct quotations be- 
gin with what kind of letter ? 

Names of the days of the week, months of the year, 
holidays, titles, parties, public bodies, and the chief words 
in the titles of books, begin with capitals. All words de- 
rived from proper names, begin with capitals. 

Correct, in every respect, the following. State why the correction 
should be made. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 



II 



a boy named henry j smith went to new york to buy Boots and 
Shoes at the New store. I think how mr windom will not speak on 
the liquor Law next Wednesday knight in the park ? Them folks 
was all a shouting victory victory to the tops of there lungs, prof, 
asa Gray was president of the National Scientific Congress which 
met at indianapolis in 18 hundred and 71. he is the Author of the 
work called how plants grow ! The Bible says : children love one 
another, i tell you i love to say that piece about gen. Sheriden riding 
20 miles from Winchester to save the day. The ohio liquor law 
causetl mutch discusion in the house last Winter. The man looks 
like a germanbuthesaysheisamerican. Pshaw how foolish. Christ to 
the young man said : Yet one thing more if thou wouldst perfect be 
sell all thou hast and give it to the poor and come and follow me. 

Classify the following nouns: 



Flock. 


Party. 


Greatness. 


To sail. 


Heat. 


Swarm. 


Running. 


Brilliance 


Herd. 


Army. 


Sailing. 


Teaching. 


School. 


Justice 


Multitude. 


Limping. 



Include the above nouns in sentences. In how few good sentenc- 
es can you introduce all ? Answer the question after trial. 

Fill the following blanks with nouns, and tell to what class they 
belong. 

is immortal. Truth is . is fine for the 

lungs. — — compress the chest. are the largest 



birds of flight, 
enfeebled ? 



Would you follow 



if you knew it 



PERSON. 

Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the man." 

" My soul to-day is far away, 
Sailing the Vesuvius bay." 

I, a preacher, implore you not to spend money for that 
which is not bread. James, have you seen your mother ? 
He spoke few words ; they were simple; each of us un- 
derstood them. She was a brave little woman, her great 
heart more than compensating for her little body. She 
will never die, for her great character is an immortal 
flower shedding a perfume in the hearts of all who know 
her. You may hold the opinions of others, but I must 
think for myself. 

And then the landlord's daughter 

Up to heaven raised her hand 
And said : " Ye may no more contend, — 

Here lies the happiest land." 

Define a noun ; pronoun. Name the nouns and pronouns in the 
above sentences. Read those that represent the speaker ; the ones 
addressed ; the persons or things spoken of ; those that represent 
neither the speakers, the ones addressed nor the ones spoken of. 
How many have you in the last class? 

Write a sentence containing a noun or a pronoun that represents 
neither the speaker, the one addressed, nor the person or thing 
spoken of. 

You now see that every noun and pronoun in a sentence 

must represent the , the one , or the or 

spoken of. 

Study the following pronouns. They are not in sentences ; but 
see if their forms will help you to decide which each represents, 
— the speaker, the one addressed or the person or thing spoken of. 
Discuss them thus : — The pronoun I represents the speake 



icer. 

112 



PERSON. XI 3 

I. He. Me. You. Them. They. 

His. We. My. Thy. Him. Theirs. Yours. 

Our. Her. Thee. Their. Mine. Thine. 

The form of each pronoun shows you whether it rep- 
resents the , the one or the person or thing . 

The form belongs to the pronoun ; hence, is its property. 
This property shows whether the pronoun represents the 
speaker, the one addressed or the person or thing spok- 
en of. This property is called person. 

Person, then, is a . This property shows what ? 

Person is that property of pronouns that shows whether 
they represent speakers, those addressed, or persons or things 
spoken of. 

From the sentences at the beginning of the chapter, 
you learned that each noun also must represent the speaker, 
the one addressed, or the person or thing spoken of. Be- 
cause 'nouns do this, they are said to have person. 

Study the previous sentences. Which nouns in them represent 
the speakers? Could they as well represent the ones addressed ? The 
ones spoken of ? 

Read the nouns representing the ones addressed. Could they as 
well represent the speakers ? The ones spoken of ? Do nouns show 
person by their forms ? How do they show it ? 

Since nouns have no form which shows their person, person can 
hardly be called their property ; but it is usually spoken of as be- 
longing to them. So understanding it, we may define person thus; — 

Person is that property of nouns and pronouns that 
shows whether they represent speakers, those addressed, or 
persons or things spoken of. 

Each noun and pronoun must represent one of how many par- 
ties ? Then, how many persons ought there to be ? 

There are three persons, — first, second and third. 
Nouns and pronouns that represent speakers, are of the 
first person ; as, I, us ; I, Lucy, love myself. 



TI4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Nouns and pronouns that represent the ones addressed, 
are of the second person; as, James, read your lesson. 
You must write. Thou art the man. 

Nouns and pronouns that represent the persons or things 
spoken of, are of the third person ; as, Tears fall some- 
times when hearts are least willing to show grief. The 
girl as well as the boy, should work. 

Tell what the nouns and the pronouns in the previous sentences 
represent, and> hence, of what person they are. 

What is person ? How many persons ? Why ? What is the 
truest definition of person? What parts of speech show person by 
form ? What by use ? 

Write a compound sentence containing nouns representing the 
three persons. Write a complex sentence containing pronouns 
representing the three persons. Write a complex sentence containing 
a noun and a pronoun that represent the same object. In what per- 
son is each ? Write a sentence containing a noun and a pronoun in 
the second person that represent the same object. Write a sentence 
containing a noun and a pronoun in the third person that represent 
the same object. If a noun and a pronoun represent the same object, 
of what person is the pronoun? 

A noun of the second person is usually followed by a 
comma, and, if other words precede it, a comma pre- 
cedes it. If it be the last word of a sentence, the mark 
following will depend upon the kind of sentence. Ex. — 
Helen, are you going to school ? I hope, John, you will 
remember that character is more precious than gold. 
How far did you go, Charles? And you refused to obey, 
my son ! Get your book, William. 

Correct the following: 

Im as well as when you was here. Must him return on monday ! 
Great improvements has been maid. The nation is torn by feuds 
which threaten their ruin. He spent his whole Life in a doing of 
good. The work has been finished for I and james last week. Ive 
been a reading Dickens' "little Dorrit." When, Htnry will you at- 
tend to this matter. Sailors I beg you not to forget the heroic deeds 



PERSON. 115 

that has made your calling honorable. Will you make the baby a 
whistle William. 

Analyze the following sentences as you were directed in Part 
First. Name the parts of speech. 

Cheerfulness keeps day-light in the mind, and fills it 
with a steady and perpetual serenity. Virtue is bold, 
and goodness never fearful. By the faults of others, 
wise men learn to correct their own. Prosperity gains 
friends, but adversity tries them. Joy rose in Carthon's 
face ; he lifted his heavy eyes. In every land, the book 
of nature is open before us. 

Parse, so far as possible, the following nouns and pronouns, thus : 
Chicago is the name of an object ; hence, it is a noun. It is the 
name of a particular object ; hence, a proper noun. It represents the 
person spoken of ; hence, of the third person. 

Chicago is a great grain market. The trees are putting 
on their summer dress. Their shadows fleck the green 
grass, and their arms sway slowly in the air. There is 
brightness about them, as it glad that spring is here. 
The children, fresh from school, shout and play under 
them ; and the red-breast has already built a nest in their 
branches. 




NUMBER. 

The birds are singing in the tree ; they have built a 
nest there, which is on a branch near them. Do you think 
the birds love the rustling of the leaves ? 

Name the nouns and pronouns in the above sentences. Name 
those that represent one object ; those that represent more than one 
object. Is there a noun or pronoun in these sentences that represents 
neither one nor more than one? Can you recall a noun or pronoun 
that does not represent one or more than one ? Then, what must 
every noun and pronoun represent ? 

Boy, fences, street, chairs, mice, mine, they, streams, 
child, church, dollar, books. 

Observe the form of the above words. Tell which words represent 
one ; which more than one. Change the form of each, so that it will 
represent a different number of objects. By what in the nouns and 
pronouns, do you tell the number cf objects represented? 

The form of nouns and pronouns, by which is shown 
whether they represent one or more than one, is a property. 
This property that shows something of the number of ob- 
jects, is called number. 

Number is that property of nouns and pronouns that 
shows whether they represent one or more than one. 

There are two numbers, — singular and plural. 

A noun or pronoun that represents but one, is of the 
singular number ; as, Martha, bird, he. 

A noun or pronoun that represents more than one, is 
of the plural number ; as, Boys, birds, they. 

A collective noun is singular when the whole collection 

is considered as one thing. Ex. — The school is well 

managed. 

116 



FORMATION OF PLURALS. 117 

A collective noun is plural, when it has the plural form, 
and when reference is had to the units composing the col- 
lection. Ex. — The schools of America are free. The 
company were not pleased. 

Name the nouns and pronouns in the following. Tell the num- 
ber of objects represented, and, hence, the number of the noun or 
pronoun. 

"All in the wild March morning, I heard the angels call, 
'Twas when the moon was setting, and the dark was over all 
The trees began to whisper, and the wind began to roll, 
And in the wild March morning, I heard them call my soul." 

" Nature and Nature's laws lay hid in night 
God said, ' Let Newton be,' and all was light." 

Name the parts of speecli in the above/ 1 ' 



FORMATION OF PLURALS. 

Different nouns change their singulars in different ways 
to form their plurals. 

Door, singer, ocean, street, sound, palm, carpet, table. 

Pronounce the plurals of each of the above words. Write them 
at the right of the singulars. 

Give the last sound heard in speaking the word door. Add to it 
the sound of s. Can you easily unite the two sounds? Add the 

*Note. — Language is the means ofcommunicating thought. By frequent, close, 
discriminating questions regarding the sentences introduced as exercises, the 
teacher will greatly quicken the pupil's perception of the strength and beauty, or 
the weakness and deformity, of the language employed. Beside discussing the 
language, the thought should be discussed ; the pupil, for the time, should think 
and feel with the author. One little sentence may be so handled by the skillful 
teacher as greatly to refine, ennoble and expand the child's nature. Very tender 
and almost holy associations may be made to cluster about some simple lesson in 
Grammar. Choice sentences educate, and it is worth the teacher's while to tarry 
long enough over a choice selection to draw out the pupil's mind and heart. In 
this way he may become the good reader of good books, and, perhaps, their mak- 
er. How much is found in the lines about Newton's discovery of the law of grav- 
itation 



Il8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

sound of j to the last sound heard in each of the other singulars. Is 
it easily done? Is the combination pleasant? In writing the plu- 
rals, what letter have you added to the singular? 

What rule can you give for forming the plurals of nouns ending in 
a sound that easily and pleasantly unites with the sound of j? Give 
six nouns illustrating this rule. 

Box, church, glass, branch, fox. 

Pronounce and write the plurals of the above words. What let- 
ters have you added to the singulars to form the plurals? Add the 
sound of j- to the last sound in church? Is it easily done? Is it a 
pleasant combination? Add the same sound to the other words. 
Can you do it easily? When the sound of es is added, is the combi. 
nation pleasant? Is it easily added? What letters have you added 
to the singulars to form the plurals? 

What rule can you give for forming the plurals of nouns ending 
in a sound not easily or pleasantly uniting with the sound of si 
Give six nouns illustrating this rule. 

Boy, honey, joy, monkey, day, money. 

With what letter do the above nouns end? By what kind of letter 
is it preceded, vowel or consonant? Write the plurals. What letter 
have you added to form the plurals ? Nouns ending in y pre- 
ceded by a vowel, form the plurals by adding . 

Fly, glory, folly, mercy, duty. 

The above nouns end with what letter? Preceded by a vowel, or 
by a consonant? Write the plurals. To what letter have you changed 
they} What letters have you added ? Nouns ending with y preced- 
ed by a consonant form their plurals how? Give four nouns to illus- 
trate each of these rules. 

Wolf, loaf, thief, calf, leaf. 

Write the plurals of the above. What letter in the plural has tak- 
en the place of the / of the singular ? What letters have been added ? 
Give the sound of/ heard in the singular? Give the sound that has 
taken the place of the sound of/? What letter always represents 
this sound? Since the sound of / has been changed to the sound of 
v, is it reasonable to change the letter /to the letter v? Give four 
nouns that form their plurals in the same way. 



FORMATION OF PLURALS. 119 

Knife, life. wife. 

With what two letters do the above end? Write the plurals. 
What sound has taken the place of the sound of/"? What letter has 
taken the place of the letter/" ? What letter has been added to the 
vet Words ending in/" or fe change the /* to v when? And add 
what letters? Give the whole rule. 

Scarf, gulf, turf, roof, hoof, grief, kerchief. 

These words end with what letter? Pronounce the plurals. Is 
the sound of /changed in the plural? Since the sound is not changed, 
should the letter be changed? Write the plurals. What letter have 
you added to the singular? Nouns ending in f form their plurals 
how, when the sound of f is not changed? Illustrate this rule. 

Cargo — cargoes ; octavo — octavoes ; halo — haloes ; 
zero — zeroes. 

With what letter do the above singulars end? Preceded by a 
vowel, or by a consonant? What letters are added to form the plu- 
rals? 

Folio — folios cameo — cameos 

In these words, what kind of letter precedes the o ? What is ad- 
ded in forming the plurals? 

Nouns ending with o preceded by a consonant, form their plurals 
how? Nouns ending with o preceded by a vowel, form their plurals 
how? Illustrate each rule by four nouns. 

6 — 6's; a — a's ; x — x's; 8 — 8's; b — b's; 's. 

Read the figure* ; the letters ; the signs. What has been added to 
the singulars to form the plurals? Give the rule for forming the plu- 
rals of figures, letters and signs. Illustrate the rule. 

Man, ox, goose, foot, tooth, ax, child, mouse. 

Write the plurals of the above nouns. According to what rule 
that you have learned, are these plurals formed ? Do you observe 
any regular way in which they form their plurals ? 

Since they form their plurals in no regular way, they form them 
how ? 

Some nouns form their plurals irregularly. 
Name six nouns that form their plurals irregularly. 



I2 o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Hanger-on, hand-full, mouse-trap, ox-cart, man- 
servant, brother-in-law. 

Think of the meaning of the above compound words. Were there 
two of the objects represented by the first word, would there be two 
hangers, or two ons? Write the plural with that understanding. 
Write the plural of the seeond as if each hand were full. Write the 
plural of the second as if one hand had been full twice. Think care- 
fully of the other compound words ; then write their plurals. In each 
case, what real thing has been multiplied, or pluralized? What part 
of the compound word represents the thing pluralized ? What part 
of the compound word have you pluralized? 

That part of a compound word is pluralized, that rep- 
resents the thing pluralized. 

Give five compound nouns ; pluralize them. 

Deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose. 

Write the above words in sentences first, so that each shall repre- 
sent one ; second, so that each shall represent more than one. How 
do the singulars and the plurals of these nouns compare ? Q'wq other 
nouns that have like singulars and plurals. 

Names of substances, and most abstract nouns are not 
pluralized except when different kinds are nie-ant ; as, The 
lady has many virtues. I have the wines of California. 
Teas from China are imported by Smith & Co. Illustrate 
by other examples. 

Some nouns have always the plural form, particularly 
names of objects consisting of two or more parts. Ex. — 
Breeches, snuffers, shears, scissors, tweezers, annals, 
ashes, antipodes, billiards, hose, tongs, aborigines, 
cattle, oats, stilts, remains, nuptials, suds, eaves, 
tidings, spectacles, thanks, vitals, victuals. 

Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular plural, 
but with difference in their meanings. 

Brother — brothers, (of the same family); brethren, (of 
the same society,); die — dies, (stamp for coining); dice, 
(cubes for gaming); fish— fishes, (individuals); fish, 



FORMATION OF PLURALS. 12 1 

(quantity or kind); penny — pennies, (pieces of money), 
pence, (how much in value); pea — peas, (distinct seeds); 
pease, (quantity). 

When a title, as, Mrs., Miss, Mr., Dr., Gen., Maj., Capt., 
is placed before a proper noun, custom is not uni- 
form in forming the plural. Sometimes the title, some- 
times the noun, and sometimes each is pluralized. Ex. — 
Drs. Smith ; Dr. Smiths ; Drs. Smiths. In the case of 
Mrs., the noun is usually pluralized, as, The Mrs. Camps. 

The adjective the is prefixed to the plural of proper 
nouns and their titles ; as, The Missess Safford. 

Many foreign nouns retain their foreign plurals. Ex. — 

Automaton automata ; axis axes ; basis bases ; 

beau — beaux ; crisis — crises ; datum — data ; ellipsis — 
ellipses; focus — foci; formula — formulae; genus — genera; 
hypothesis — hypotheses ; memorandum — memoranda ; 
nebula — nebulae; phenomenon — phenomena; radius- 
radii; stimulus — stimuli; stratum — strata. 

Write the plurals of the following. Give rules for their formation. 

Sofa, beau, tomato, bed-room, foot, thief, stratum 
arithmetic, iron, sex, turkey, photography, axis, day, 
goodness, woman-servant, hen, wharf, vinegar, spoonful, 
sheep, swine, scissors, Dr. Stafford, alley, couple, octavo, 
memorandum, ally, potato, brother, meekness. 

Write a simple sentence containing a compound subject, that con- 
sists of four nouns in the plural. Write a complex sentence contain- 
ing adjective and adverbial propositions, and nouns in the plural to 
illustrate four different rules for pluralizing. 

Write a simple sentence with a complex subject to which belongs 
an adjective element in the singular. 

Write a short letter to a friend, observing the directions given in 
Lessons in Language. Fancy yourself a city boy or girl visiting in 
the country, and writing to a friend in the city. Write on your slate 
what business you intend to follow when grown to manhood or wo- 
manhood, and why you choose this. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

REVIEW. 

What is number? What is person? What is a proper noun? 
What is a complex sentence ? What is a compound element ? What 
is a simple subject 

Analyze the following sentences, name the nouns and pronouns, 
and parse each, so far as able. In parsing, first state the office of the 
word, then, because of this, what it is. 

John is my brother. 

John is the name of an object ; hence, a noun. It is the name of 
a particular object of a class ; hence, a proper noun. It represents 
the one spoken of; hence, third person. It represents one ; hence, 

singular number. 

" The whale-mother loves her young very dearly. When 
whaler approaches a mother and her young one, he first 
attacks the young, for it is less strong, less active and less 
experienced. But the mother places herself between her 
nursling and its aggressor. She pushes the little one with 
her flippers and her body, to accelerate its motion. Some- 
times she raises it against her neck and back, and thus 
escapes with it. Admirable and touching sight ! The 
sentiment of maternity dwells in the hearts of these 
gigantic monsters of the deep." 

In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, 
invaded France. 

" The only amaranthine flower on earth 

Is virtue ; the only lasting treasure, truth." 

Correct the following : 

There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Al- 
mighty giveth them understanding. I am as well as when 
you was here. I hope I shall see somebody and that they 
will bring me a present. Them flies flew around the 
hooves of the mules until one couldnt hardly blame um 
for kickin. Yes John I be a goin to. I have got on my 
new hat. I havent got no edecation. 




GENDER. 

In most farmers' families, who do the work on the farm ? Who 
do most of the work in the stores? Who build ships, houses and 
bridges ? What relation to you is the son of your brother or sister ? 
What relation is the brother of a father or of a mother ? 

What one term could be given to men, boys, uncles and nephews ? 

What one name could be given to women, girls, aunts, and nieces? 

Is a friend always a male ? Is a friend always a female? A friend 

may be either of what two sexes ? Is a writer always a male ? Is a 

writer always a female ? A writer, then, may be of what sex ? 

Birds, pupils, dogs, parents, teachers and merchants, may be of 
what sexes? 

Is a slate a male ? Is a slate a female ? A bird may be cither a 
male or a female, but a slate is what? 

Study the following nouns and pronouns. Have they any tiling 
by which they show whether they represent males, females, either, or 
neither ? 

Tell which of the four classes each of the following nouns and 
pronouns represents. 

Henry, it, chicken, town, grand-father, house, hen, 
street, fox, grand-mother, sailor, he, cousin, mare, 
pullet, king, we, John, fence, teacher, queen, box, 
count, rain, sheep, cock, she, aunt, her, Hannah. 

Since these nouns and pronouns have something that 
shows you what they represent, they must have a property. 
This property is gender. 

Gender is that property of nouns and pronouns which 
shows whether they represent males, females, either or neither. 

How many genders ought there to be? Why? 

There are four genders : masculine, feminine, common 
and neuter. 



I2 4 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



What dees the word neuter mean ? 

Nouns and pronouns that represent males, are of the 
masculine gender ; as, William, he, ox, boy. 

Nouns and pronouns that represent females, are of the 
feminine gender ; as, Laura, she, cow, Mary. 

Nouns and pronouns that represent either males or fe- 
males, are of the common gender ; as, Child, neighbor, 
student, sheep. 

Nouns and pronouns that represent neither males nor 
females, are of the neuter gender ; as, Tree, picture, 
stream, tongue, it. 

Some authors prefer not to recognize a common gender. The 
point is one of little importance. Some nouns are either masculine or 
feminine, yet, it cannot be told which. As an easy way to dispose of 
such, we use common gender. 

Masculine nouns are sometimes applied to both sexes. 
Ex. — Man (the human creature) is a strange animal. 
Many horses (horses and mares) are driven in the 
principal streets. The ox (both sexes) is wild in South 
America. Tennyson and Mrs. Browning are modern 
poets. 

Things without life are sometimes spoken of as possess- 
ing life and sex. They are then said to be personified. 
If the personified object possess great power, strength or 
domineering properties, it is supposed to be more like a 
male. What gender should be employed to represent it ? 
Ex. — The sun shone in all his glory. War with his 
plagues came over the land. 

If the personified object possess beauty, productive or 
submissive qualities, it is thought to be more like a female. 
What gender should be employed to represent it ? Ex. — 
Spring came with her flowers and leaves. The earth 
with her stores invites man. Beauty came with her fairy 
train, 



GENDER, 125 

What sex does each noun and each pronoun in the following rep- 
resent, and, hence, of what gender is it ? 

When Abraham Lincoln was assassinated at Washing- 
ton, in 1865, the people of the North lamented. Gloom 
filled every house. Mourning emblems testified to almost 
universal grief. Men and women gathered at street cor- 
ners, and, with tearful eyes and sad faces, talked of the 
nation s loss. It was as if the father were dead, and the 
children were grieving. 

Many a woman, confined to the narrow limits of a 
humble home, shows herself a heroine, by fighting poverty 
bravely, by capturing comfort ingeniously, by keeping 
sunshine in heart and manner, though upon her head rain 
trials and hardships. And who can estimate the amount 
of moral beauty and grandeur which may come to such 
an one ! It may be like gold hidden in some rocky vein, 
but it is gold still, and will be recognized as such by those 
who have eyes for true metal. Have you and I such eyes ? 

Parse the above nouns and pronouns as before directed, adding to 
the properties, the new one, gender. 

Write the following nouns and-pronouns in one column, and their 
feminities in another at the right. 

Man, boy, uncle, nephew, he, son, king. 

The nouns in the first column on your slates represent what class? 
The nouns in the second represent what class? You have represent- 
ed the two sexes by words. Are the masculine and feminine words 
alike, or different? Then the two sexes may be represented how? 
Prove this by other examples. 

Actor — actress; Jew — Jewess; lion — lioness; prophet 
— prophetess ; poet — poetess ; author — authoress ; negro 
— negress ; doctor — doctress. 

Observe the masculine and the feminine forms of each of the 
above. Which parts of these words are alike? How are the termi- 
nations? From these words you see that the two sexes may be rep- 
resented bv words having different . Illustrate this by six nouns. 



12b ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

To the following words, join words that will change the gender 
denoted by them ; thus, — bear, he-bear, she-bear ; or male-bear, fe- 
male-bear. Write the nouns of masculine gender in the left-hand 
column, those of feminine in the right. 

Servant, child, sparrow, goat, descendants. 
Read the words you have joined to show whether the nouns rep- 
resent males or females. 

These Joi/ied words which show, or lead one to distin- 
guish, whether males or females are meant, are distin- 
guishing words. 

The two sexes are indicated by what kind of words? In how 
many ways may the sexes be indicated? Name each and give ex- 
amples. 

Study the following tables and be able to give the masculine or 
the feminine of any noun pronounced by the teacher. 

BY DIFFERENT WORDS. 



Bachelor, 


maid. 


Male, 


female. 


Beau, 


belle. 


Man, 


woman . 


Boar, 


sow. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Boy, 


girl. 


Ram, 


ewe. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Son, 


daughter 


Buck, 


doe. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Bull, 


cow. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Cock, 


hen. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


Drake, 


duck. 


Dog, 


bitch. 


Earl, or count 


countess. 


Monk, 


nun. 


Father, 


mother. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Master, 


mistress. 


He, 


she. 


Mister, 


mistress. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Sire, 


dame. 


King, 


queen. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Steer, 


heifer. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Youth, 


damsel. 





GENDER. 12 




BY DIFFERENT TERMINATIONS. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Tutor, tutoress. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Hero, heroine. 


Negro, 


negress. 


Bridegroom, bride. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Benefactor, benefactress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


Governor, governess. 


Doctor, 


doctress. 


Heir, heiress. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Poet, poetess. 


Jew, 


Jewess. 


Widower, widow. 


Lion, 


lioness. 


God, goddess. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Songster, songstress. 


Giant, 


giantess. 






BY DISTINGUISHING WORDS. 


Land-lord, 




land-lady. 


Gentle-man, 




gentle-woman. 


Pea-cock, 




pea- hen. 


He-goat, 




she-goat. 


Man-servant, 




woman-servant. 


Male-child, 




female-child. 


Cock- sparrow 




hen-sparrow. 


Grand-father, 




grand-mother. 


English-man, 




English-woman. 


Mer-man, 




mer-maid. 


School-master. 


school-mistress. 




CASE. 

James, the student, is a writer, — a journalist. Augusta, 
the tall lass, is a musician, — a pianist. The dear woman ! 
how I shall like to see her ! You, a farmer, may be a 
scholar. That battle ! boys, do you remember it ? I 
am just myself. Children, be honest and true. That 
beast is a lion. I ran. The bird, a bob o-link, was 
swinging. Read the nouns and pronouns. Home ! how 
sweet it is ' 

Why are the above sentences? Read the nouns and pronouns. 
Read those that are used as simple subjects. The nouns and pro- 
nouns just read have what use in the sentences? Read the nouns 
and pronouns that are used to identify the simple subjects. What 
two uses may nouns and pronouns have ? Read those that are used 
as attributes. What three uses may nouns and pronouns have in sen- 
tences? Read those that are used to identify the attributive noun. 
What four uses may nouns and pronouns have? Read the nouns 
used to call the attention of the one addressed. Name five uses of 
nouns and pronouns. Read the nouns that call attention to the ob- 
ject of thought. Name six uses that nouns and pronouns may have 
in sentences. 

Complete the following diagram. 

f as the , 

I to , 

Nouns and pronouns may be used -[ . h " ' 

I to 1 

I to . 

Write a sentence containing a noun used as attribute. Write a 
sentence containing a pronoun for subject and a pronoun for attribute- 
Write a sentence with a subject in third person, plural number, neu- 
ter gender ; and an attribute that is a noun. Write a sentence con- 
taining a word representing one of the above uses ; one, containing 

123 



CASE. I29 

words representing two ; one, with words representing three ; one, with 
words representing four ; one, with words representing five. 

Include all the words in one of the following columns in a sen- 
tence. Write sentences enough to include each column. 
Greenland. Dresses. Ringing. Air. Time. 

Icebergs. Loosely. Sighing. Mountains. Death. 

Whales. Wise. Swinging. Mules. Work. 

Dr. Kane. Health. Crying. Flowers. Strength. 

Name those nouns that have any one of the six uses before named 
in this chapter, and specify their exact use. 

In the following examples, name the nouns and pronouns, and 
give the uses of those that are employed in either of the six ways we 
have discussed. 

He is perfectly honest. A noun is a name. The Swiss 
are strongly affected by their native music. Coal fields 
are remains of mighty forests that have been buried in the 
earth. Apples and peaches are fruit. 

" An idler is a watch that wants both hands, 
As useless when he goes as when he stands." 

"Farewell! — a word that hath been and must be." 
My men, I look to you for victory. Father, mother, 
friends ! all are gone. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the preceding sentences. The 
order is the following : 

i. Part of speech. 4. Number. 

2. Class. 5, Gender. 

3. Person. 6. Use. 

Much valuable time will be saved by rigidly following this order. 
In every case, insist that careful thought precede expression. 
This will secure accuracy and eradicate blunders. 

John's horse is here. Her book is on mother's table. 
I enjoy the girls' sports. Have you Webster's and Wor- 
cester's Dictionaries ? Will you go to Smith, the baker's 
house. 

In the above, name the nouns and pronouns. Name those that 
are adjective elements. What do these elements denote? To what 



i3° 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



do they belong? The application of what parts of speech is limited 
by those words that denote possession? 

In addition to the six uses before mentioned, we see 
that nouns and pronouns may be used to limit the appli- 
cation of nouns by denoting possession. 

In the last sentence, what person is represented as owning the 
house? What is that person's name? What word tells his occupa- 
tion? . Smith limits house by denoting what ? What noun identities 
Smith? 

Then a noun may be used to identify a noun denoting 
possession 

Nouns and pronouns may be used •] _ 



Complete the above diagram. 

A rat's trick. The rats' tricks. 

One boy's hat. Ten boys' hats. 

A pupil's book. Two pupils' books. 

The master's rule. All tyrants' rules. 

Name the nouns in the above that denote possession. Name those 
possessive nouns that are plural. Name those that are singular. 
The singular nouns are made to indicate possession, or the possessive 
is formed, by adding what to the singular? The possessive nouns in 
the plural end with what letter? What mark is added to the plural 
to indicate possession? 

The children's father has come. Woman's work is too 
confining. Men's shoes are thicker than women's. 

Name the possessive nouns. Do the plurals end in si What two 
things are added to denote possession ? 

From observation of the above examples, you are able to give rules 
for indicating possession. 

Give the rule for forming the possessive of nouns in the singular 
number. Give the rule for forming the possessive of plural nouns 
ending in the letter s. Give the rule for forming the possessive of 
plural nouns not ending in s. 

As exceptions to the rule, the possessive of conscience 
and goodness is written with an apostrophe only. Ex, — 
For goodness' sake. 



CASE. 131 

When several terms represent a possessor, the possess- 
ive sign is generally given to that term that is next the 
name of the thing possessed. Ex. — John Smith's history. 
The Queen of England's son. I bought durable boots 
at Sexton the shoemaker's store. 

Jones, Smith and Tyler have common possession of one 
horse. We indicate this common possession thus : Jones, 
Smith and Tyler's horse. 

Williams, Cook and Morey own each a horse ; there is 
no common possession. We indicate this thus : Wil- 
liams's, Cook's and Morey's horses. 

The apostrophe is never used to indicate the possessive of 
pronouns. 

Write sentences containing the following nouns used lo indicate 
possession ; add the ' or 's as before directed. 

Henry, men, Martha, deer, souls, goodness, city, teeth, 
children, boy, heart, noun, cats, truth, mouse, boys, feet, 
doctors. 

Write the singular possessive of the following nouns : 

Saffords, men, flies, boots, children, flowers, wives, boys. 

Include in sentences the plural possessives of the following words : 

Child, loaf, fly, man, boy, songster, foot, Dr. Call, leaf, 
mouse, lass, Smith. 

Correct the following : 

The good mens' reward is not in mans' words. Do you 
use Webster or Worcesters dictionary. Seven boy's eyes 
were put out. I hoped to see you at McNie's the book- 
mans' store. All those childs' have reading books given 
by the childrens' friend. Horace's and Addison's cousin 
has arrived. My book's are better than yourn. Hi's 
cheeks were redder than rose's. A hanging oer the door 
was two deers horns. Every tree is known by it's fruit. 
The generals servants came on before them. 



!j2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Parse the following nouns and pronouns as before directed, say- 
in"- last: and is used as subject, or is zised to identify — by denoting 
possession, dfc, £fc. 

My Mary was my nurse. She watched and waited for 
the Doctor's coming. The spider's web is a diamond 
catcher. Milton wrote many of his poems when he was 
blind. The sun's light is necessary to fruits' ripening. 
Our bodies are wonderfully made. 

Instead of a possessive noun, the preposition of may be 
employed either for the sake of elegance or to avoid an 
unpleasant hissing sound. Ex. — Gen. Washington's men. 
The men of Gen. Washington. Williams's store. The 
store of Williams. 

Change to more elegant form the following : 

England and France's armies fought well. Essex's 
death seemed to haunt Elizabeth's mind. Schurz's men 
were often at death's door. Do you believe your views 
are better than any one's else? 

Parse the prepositions that are used in the improved sentences. 
What relation do they show ? 

I love you. He saw me. Columbus discovered Amer- 
ica. Grant captured Vicksburg. Booth plays Hamlet. 
We enjoy singing. 

What kind of sentences are these ? Why ? Analyze each. What 
part of speech forms the simple predicates? Read the objective ele- 
ments. Why are these objective elements? To what part of speech 
do they belong? 

Objective elements that belong to verbs, are objects of 
the verbs. 

In the above, read the objects of the verbs. 

To avoid danger was his aim. Studying Chinese is 
hard. To love children is natural. Buying grain is his 
occupation. Charles had a good time shooting ducks. 
To hate sin is a sign of purity. 



CASE. 133 

Read the participles and the infinitives. To what general class of 
words do participles and infinitives belong? 

Read the elements belonging to the infinitives and to the parti- 
ciples, and that show what or zuhotn. Since they belong to verbal 
words and show what or 10/ioiu, they are objects of these words. 

Nouns and pronouns may be used as objects of what three kinds 
of verbal words? Read the objects of the participles and infinitives. 

Booth killed Lincoln, our President. Shakspeare wrote 
" King Lear," a tragedy. Mr. Burt examined Pickert, a 
pupil. I study Dalton, a physiology. Teaching painting, 
an art, was his occupation. To see Vesuvius, the volca- 
no, has long been my desire. He intends to catch Bender, 
the murderer. 

Read the objects of the verbs. What nouns identify these objects? 
Read the objects of the participles. What nouns identify these ob- 
jects? Read the objects of the infinitives. What nouns identify 
these objects? Nouns and pronouns may be used to identify the 
objects of what verbal words? 

George sailed on the Dubuque. The children play 
with you. Henry looked toward the hills. The chest of 
oak is strong. 

Read the prepositions in these sentences. Read the objects of 
these prepositions. Nouns and pronouns may be u:;ed as objects of 
what ? 

The dress of silk was sold by Mary, the poor orphan. 
Go to the hall, the building on the right. The boy rides 
on Pomp, the dog. The great car was drawn by camels, 
animals from Asia and Africa. 

Read the prepositions in these sentences. Read the objects of the 
prepositions. Analyze the sentences. Which nouns are used to iden- 
tify the objects of the prepositions? 

Nouns and pronouns may be the objects of how many kinds of 
words-? Nouns and pronouns may be used to identify the objects of 
how many kinds of words? 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Write the following diagram and complete it with the new uses of 
nouns and pronouns. 

'"as . 

as , 

to , 

as — , 

to , 

as , 

to . 



Nouns and pronouns may be used 



Write another diagram so abbreviated as to contain but four state- 
ments, instead of eight. 

Write a simple sentence containing a noun used as the object of a 
verb, and a pronoun used as the object of a preposition. Write a 
complex sentence containing a compound objective element. Write a 
simple sentence containing a noun used as the object of a verb, and 
another noun identifying that object. Write a sentence with a pro- 
noun for subject, a pronoun for an objective element, and a noun used 
as object of a preposition. 

Give the tises of the following nouns and pronouns : 

Blue-Island is a town situated on a bluff, which rises 
abruptly from the prairie. It is covered with trees, — oaks, 
ash and hickory. I love to ride along the margin of this 
bluff and see the fields that are spread below. The time 
is September. A lazy haze fills the air, through which 
one dimly sees the corn bending with its weight of ears, 
the farm houses which are anchored in a grassy sea, and, 
nearer at hand, the golden-rod and the aster, which, even 
now, tell us that summer is past and that autumn is here. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the above. 

We have been talking of the uses of nouns and pronouns 
in sentences. From these uses they acquire certain rela- 
tions to other words in the sentence. This relation is 
called case. Case denotes the relation which nouns 
and pronouns have to other words in the sentence. 

There are three cases : the nominative, the posses- 
sive and the objective. 



CASE. 135 

as subject, 

to identify the subject ; 

1 as attribute, 
A noun or pronoun used j tQ ident - fy the attribute . 

j to call attention of the one addressed, 
[to call attention to the object spoken of, 

is in the nominative case. 

As nouns used to call attention have no relation to other word.;, 
they are sometimes said to be in the independent case. 

C to limit another by denoting possession, 
A noun or pronoun used < to identify a noun or pronoun denoting 
( possession, 

is in the possessive case. 

Any noun having the form of a possessive, is said to be 

in the possessive case, even though it do not limit by 

showing possession. Nouns in the possessive case may 

indicate possession, authorship, discovery, invention, &c. 

Ex. — John's horse. Milton's poems. Smith's Sound. 

Wheeler's sewing machine. 

as the object of a verb, 
to identify the object of a verb ; 
as the object of a preposition, 
A noun or pronoun used-{ to identify the object of a preposition ; 
j as object of an infinitive or participle, 
j to identify the object of an infinitive or 
[ participle, 

is in the objective case. 

Commit to memory the matter of the above three diagrams, and 
as you recite the separate uses, give an example illustrating each. 

Write a simple sentence containing four words in the nominative 
case; four in the objective case. Write a complex sentence contain- 
ing two words in the nominative case ; two in the objective, and two 
in the possessive. 

Write a sentence containing a collective noun used in the objective 
case. Write a compound sentence containing a verbal noun used in 
the objective case ; one, with a participle used as subject, and with 
an objective element belonging to the subject. * 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences, and al- 
ways in the following order. 

*Note. — The teacher may multiply examples under every head. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

i. Part of speech. 5. Gender, 

2. Class. 6. Use. 

3. Person. 7. Case. 

4. Number, 8. Rule. 

The boy, Henry's friend, loves books of travel. 

Henry is a noun, proper, third, singular, masculine, and being used 
to limit friend by denoting possession, is in the possessive case. 
Rule. — A noun limiting another by denoting possession, is in the 
possessive case. 

Friend is a noun, common, third, singular, masculine, and being 
used to limit the subject, &oy, is in the nominative case. 

Hooks is a noun, common, third, plural, neuter, and being used as 
the object of the verb, loves, is in the objective case. 

In parsing, you must think the reason for the various properties 
belonging to words, and then speak the properties. Analyze each 
sentence before you parse any of the words.* 

They are wolves in sheep's clothing. Wisdom procures 
the esteem of the wise. The second blow makes the bat- 
tle, boys. Stealing melons may lead to stealing money. 
Few know the value of a friend, till they lose him. Idle- 
ness is a nest in which mischief lays her eggs. I shall 
forget the blow, the insult. A mother's tenderness and 
father's care are nature's gifts for man's advantage. He 
bought bananas, tropical fruit, at Jones's shop. He is 
dead, the beautiful youth. 

" I heard the trailing garments of the night 
Sweep through her marble halls ; 
I saw her sable skirts all fringed with light, 
From the celestial walls." 

To twine spirally round some supporting body, is a 
common mode of climbing. Nectar, the sweet liquid 
that most flowers produce, is eaten by insects. Nectar 
is eaten by bees, and made by them into honey. The 
jaguar inhabits great forests, swims rivers and pursues 

*Note.— The teacher will continually review pupils upon definitions of sen- 
tences, adjective elements, propositions, parts of speech, properties, &c. 



CASE. I37 

aquatic animals. Grant, a warrior, and Greeley, a jour- 
nalist, were candidates for the presidency. During the 
great fire of Chicago, in 1871, iron was melted, and ran 
like water ; it cooled in the form of icicles, and hung from 
walls in beautiful forms. 

Include the following words in sentences ; add to them objective 
elements, 

Love, seeming, have, sold, saw, broke, to hear, paint- 
ing, to tear, mend, smoke, to break. 

Include the following words, phrases and clauses in sentences, and 
in such manner as to make them objective elements. 

Mary, hold, enough! bottle, dollar, swinging, to skip, 
to study, paper, letter, writing, to kill, drawing, how 
lovely September is ! I hate the thing. 

Write a sentence containing words identifying the subject and the 
object. Write one containing words identifying the object of a verb 
and the object of a preposition. Write one containing words identi- 
fying a noun in the possessive and the object of a participle. Write 
a sentence with a proposition used as subject ; one, with a proposition 
uesd as object of a verb ; one, with a proposition used as the attribute, 

In what case is every word that identifies another word? What 
principle or rule determines the case of a word used to identify anoth- 
er word? Find examples that prove this. A noun in the objective 
case may be in an adjective element. Show it by a sentence. 

A noun in the objective case may be in an adverdial element. 
Show it. 



PRONOUNS. 

Lincoln was a good man ; he was revered by all. 
They who saw him, loved him. An enemy that hides 
himself under the veil of friendship, is worse than one 
that declares open hostility. All men have their frailties. 
That mountain that stands against the sky, is my daily 
delight. The friend whom I respect, is respectable. 
Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow. The 
city that is set upon a hill, cannot be hid. He told a lie, 
and now regrets it. I wish to go, but it is impossible. 
The man who does right, will be glad of it. 

41 The man whom heaven appoints 
To govern others, should himself first learn 
To bend his passions to the sway of reason." 

'•'' The good need fear no law ; 

It is his safety, and the bad man's awe." 

" And he returns a friend, who went a foe." 

" Now I am a free man," said John, and he said it with 
true, manly voice and gesture. 

Define a noun. Define a pronoun. Name the pronouns in the 
above, and the word, phrase or proposition for which each stands. 

The word, phrase or proposition for which a pronoun 
stands, is its antecedent. 

Name the antecedents of the above pronouns. Sometimes the 
antecedent is not expressed, but is understood. In isolated sentences 
it is not always known. 

In the above sentences, name the pronouns that show their flcrsou 
by their form. Describe each thus, — He shows by its form that it is 
of the third person, 

138 



PRONOUNS. I39 

Name the pronouns that might be used, in different sentences, to 
represent either the speakers, those addressed or the persons or things 
spoken of. 

A pronoun that shows its person by its form, is a per- 
sonal pronoun ; as, I, you, them. 

The personal pronouns are I, thou, you, he, she and it, 
with their variations. 

Thou and its variations, thy, thine, thee and ye, are ancient and 
solemn forms, used in the Bible, in prayers and frequently in poetry. 
Ex. — Honor thy father and thy mother. And when ye come into a 
house, salute it. Hallowed be thy name 

It frequently represents an indefinite something ; as, // snows, it 
lightens. 

It frequently introduces a sentence and is explained by a follow- 
ing phrase or proposition. It is then called an expletive. Ex. — It 
was sweet to hear the child's voice. It is evident that John intends 
to learn, i. e. It, (that John intends to learn,) is evident. 

Name the subjects, and also the expletives. 

The compound personal pronouns are formed by join- 
ing the word self to the pronouns my, thy, your, him, her 
and //, to form the singular ; and selves to our, your and 
them, to form the plural. 

Give the compound personal pronouns. Fill the following blanks 
with them. 

John struck . I saw it. You must gain re- 
nown. Was he foolish enough to defeat ? They seemed to 

try to deceive . 

What elements are the compound pronouns you have inserted ? 
In what cases are they? 

I am determined to do right for right's sake. 
Name the personal pronoun in the above. What are its person, 
number and case ? Why? 

My horse is bay. 

Name the personal pronoun. In what propenies is it like I ? In 
what property is it different ? 

The master saw me. 



140 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Name the personal pronoun. In what properties is it like / and 
my? In what different? /, my and me are alike in what properties? 
Unlike in what? 

Write sentences containing the pronouns zue, our and us. We, 
our and us are alike in what properties? Unlike in what? I, my, 
me, zve, our and us are alike in what property? 

Write a sentence containing a personal pronoun, first person, sin- 
gular, possessive. Change the pronoun to first person, objective. 
Change the pronoun to first, singular, nominative. Change it to first, 
plural, nominative. 

In each sentence you have used a pronoun of the first person, but 
have changed the pronoun when you changed its properties of num- 
ber and case. 

A change in a noun or pronoun to indicate a change in 
its properties, is declension. 

What is declension? 

The personal pronouns are thus declined : 





FIRST PERSON. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Nominative, 


. I, 


we. 


Possessive, 


my, or mine, 


our, or ours, 


Objective, 


me ; 


us. 


SECOND PERSON.— COMMON tORM. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


you, 


you, 


Pos. 


your, or yours, 


your, or yours, 


Obj. 


you ; 

SOLEMN FORM. 


you. 


Nom. 


thou, 


ye, or you, 


Pos. 


thy, or thine, 


your, or yours, 


Obj. 


thee ; 

THIRD PERSON. — MASCULINE 


you. 




Singular. 


Plural, 


Nom. 


he, 


they, 


Pos. 


bis, 


their, or theirs, 


Obj. 


him ; 


them. 



PRONOUNS. 



141 



THIRD PERSON. — FEMININE. 





Singular. 




Plutal. 


Nom. 


she, 




they, 


Pos. 


her, or hers, 




their, or theirs, 


Obj. 


her ; 




them. 




THIRD PERSON.- 


-NEUTER. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


it, 




they, 


Pos. 


its, 




their, or theirs, 


Obj. 


it ; 




them. 


COMPOUND 


PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. 




Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom, 


myself, 




ourselves, 


Pos. 












Obj. 


myself ; 




ourselves. 




SECOND PERSON. 






Singular. 




Plural. 


Nom. 


thyself, or yourself, 


yourselves, 


Pos. 










Obj. 


thyself or youi 


rself ; 


yourselves. 



Nom. 

Pos. 

Obj. 



THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. 
himself, herself, itself, 



Plural 

themselves, 



himself, herself, itself ; themselves. 
What is the nominative corresponding to me? thee? mine? him? 
her? them? us? myself? What is the objective corresponding to I? 
we? she? hers? he? it? thou? ye? you? our? their? Of what per- 
son, number, gender and case is each of the following? Him, your, 
we, yourselves, his, us, thee, yourself, its, they, our, he, my, ours, ye, 
them, mine, himself, it, thine, myself, I, yours, thy, hers, themselves, 
thyself, thy, she, thou, itself, herself, me. Give the compounds of 
them, my, it, her, him, thy, you, our. 

John loves his work ; you love yours. You are faithful 
to your promise ; I must be to mine. Men should care 
for their children ; the birds care for theirs. 



I42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In these sentences,^ represents what noun? What words could 
be substituted for the pronoun yours? The pronoun mine represents 
what two words? The pronoun theirs represents what two? 

The pronouns mine, ours, yours, hers, theirs, and sometimes his, 
are equivalent to my, our, your, her, their and. his, and the name of 
the object possessed. 

Fill the following blanks. 

John loves mother. The table is in the way, and 

we must move . I shall go to Boston for is a 

pleasant day. Our friends are in town, and — — must 

visit . Mary lost way when was traveling 

among the mountains. 

Name the antecedent of each pronoun you have supplied. What 
are the number, person and gender of the first antecedent? What 
are the number, person and gender, of the pronoun that repre- 
sents it? What are the number, person and gender of the second 
antecedent? Of the pronoun that represents it? Of each of the oth- 
er antecedents? Of the pronoun that represents it? The above 
pronouns agree with their antecedents in what three properties? 

Pronouns should agree with their antecedents in per- 
son, number and gender. 

Them should not be used as an adjective. Ex. — Them 
books is mine. 

Correct the following and state why they are wrong : 

Each cold day seems to hurt me, and I am glad to see 
them go. A person who is honest and industrious will 
succeed in their plans. The public is invited to bring 
of their abundance. If there be any one to help let them 
come forward. You and John must learn their lessons. 
Each woman brought their work with them. Do you love 
them apples ? The sun is a father to us and we will love 
it. The congregation was weary and they concluded the 
exercises by singing Old Hundred. The flock was so 
unruly that the farmer shut them up in a stable. Chil- 
dren is in the common gender because they denote males 



PRONOUNS. 143 

or females. I call on every man and every woman to ex- 
press their opinions frankly and freely. The majority is 
ready to show their colors. If I see any man I'll tell them 
your determination. 

The following is the method of parsing personal pronouns. 

Washington is called the Father of his country. 

His takes the place of a noun ; hence, it is a pronoun. It shows 
its person by its form ; hence, it is a personal pronoun. It is used 
for the noun Washington ; hence, Washington is its antecedent. De- 
clined. — Sing., nom. he, pos. his, obj. him ; plural, nom. they, pos. 
their, or theirs, obj. them. It is of the third person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender, thus agreeing with its antecedent, according 
to the rule, — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, 
number and gender. It belongs to country, which it limits by denot- 
ing possession ; hence, it is of the possessive case. Rule, — A noun 
or pronoun used to limit another by denoting possession, is in the 
possessive case. 

Whenever the antecedent is unexpressed, unknown, or the form of 
the pronoun does not indicate its properties, the term unknown may 
be used in place of the words masculine, plural, &c. Usually the 
properties can be learned by study. 

In a similar manner, parse the other personal pronouns. 

Margaret loves her bed of violets. The boys are here. 
Henry, have you seen them ? Every house has its skele- 
ton, John, are you well ? I am to see the ship when she 
comes to port. The black-birds darken the air as they 
fly towards the islands ; their nests are there. The river 
overflows its banks in spring. 

The teacher will multiply examples. The abbreviated form, as 
given below, should finally be used. 

The robin built her nest in the apple-tree ; she laid her 
eggs, hatched her young, and now cares for them with a 
true mother's love. 

Her is a personal pronoun, standing for its antecedent robin. De- 
clined, — Sing., nom. she, pos. her, or hers, obj. her ; plural, nom. 
they, pos, their, or theirs, obj. them. It is third, singular, feminine, 



T44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

thus agreeing with its antecedent, according to the rule, — A pronoun 
must agree with its antecedent in person, number and gender. Be- 
ing used to limit nest by showing possession, it is in the possessive 
case. Rule, — A word limiting another by showing possession, is in 
the possessive case. 

Them is a personal pronoun, standing for its antecedent young. 
Declined, — Sing,, nom. he, or she, pos. his, or her, or hers, obj. him, 
or her; Plural, nom. they, pos. their, or theirs, obj. them. It is 
third, plural, common, thus agreeing with its antecedent, according 
to the rule, — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, 
number and gender. Being used as the object of the preposition/*?/-, 
it is in the objective case. Rule, — The object of a preposition is in 
the objective case. 

You have your home; ours is destroyed. 

Ours is a personal pronoun, equivalent to our home. Ours is a 
personal pronoun standing for the names of the speakers, unexpressed. 
Declined, — Sing,, nom. I, pos. my, or mine, obj. me ; plural, nom. 
we, pos. our, or ours, obj. us. It is first, plural, gender unknown, 
thus agreeing with its unknown antecedent, according to the rule, — 
A pronoun must agree, etc. Being used to limit home by denoting 
possession, it is in the possessive case. Rule, . 

Home should be parsed according to the form for nouns. 

Order for parsing personal pronouns.* 

i. Part of speech. 5. Agreement with antecedent. 

2. Class. 6. Rule for agreement. 

3. Antecedent. 7. Case. 

4. Declension. 8. Rule for case. 

Analyze the following sentences,, Parse the nouns, pronouns and 
the prepositions. Name the parts of speech. 
" I am black, I am black, 

And yet God made me, they say." 

We wandered by the sea to gather shells and moss. 
An honest, sensible, well-bred man will not offend me, 
and none other can. Originally, women were taken by 

*Note.— Pupils should always follow this or a similar order. By so doing, the 
parsing becomes more rapid and thorough. All members of a class, having the 
same order in mind, can follow with ease, the pupil who is reciting. Until the 
order is learned, a slip of paper containing it may be before the eye. 



PRONOUNS. 



■45 



force, or were regularly sold by their fathers to the hus- 
band. Having, in the last chapter, glanced at the extra- 
ordinary forms of leaves, we now return to consider leaves 
in their ordinary form. 

" Do you hear the children weeping, O my brother? 
Ere the sorrow comes with years ? 
They are leaning their young heads against their mother, 
And that cannot stop their tears." 



— H, B. Browning. 



*' A solemn murmur in the soul 
Tells of a world to be, 
As travelers hear the billows roll 
Before they reach the sea." 

Thou art the giver of every good and perfect gift. Lib- 
erty has God on her side. I know that you can learn. 
Is this apple yours, or mine? Every man has a right to 
his own views ; I have to mine. 

" Leave thy low, vaulted past " 




RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

The trees that murmur in the wind, make music. The 
man who conquers selfishness, is brave. The soul that 
endures, may be tender and strong. I have what is need- 
ed. This hat, which is now one hundred years old, be- 
longed to a revolutionary soldier. Rice, which is so 
largely consumed by the inhabitants of South Eastern 
Asia, requires a damp soil. Margaret Fuller, whom the 
waves buried on the passage from Europe to America, 
possessed rare conversational" powers. The one who first 
ran to the sepulchre was a woman. The one whose gen- 
erosity aided Columbus in discovering the New World, 
was a woman. A woman sovereign, whom all respect, 
freed 800,000 slaves in the West Indies. The life that 
most persons must lead, is a life of labor. The life that 
all persons should lead, is a life of labor. 

Classify each of the above sentences with regard to the number 
and kind of propositions. Read the subordinate propositions in each, 
and tell to what parts of speech each is subordinate. What kind of 
subordinate propositions are they ? Why adjective ? Name the pro- 
nouns in each adjective proposition. Name the antecedent of each 
pronoun, and name the word to which the adjective proposition is 
subordinate. In each sentence how many different words have you 
named? Then what can you say of the antecedent of the pronoun, 
and of the word to which the adjective proposition belongs? What 
one word in the adjective proposition seems most nearly related to 
the word upon which the proposition depends ? 

This word connects, or relates the adjective proposition to the 
word to which the proposition is subordinate. 

146 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 147 

Because these pronouns connect, or relate, the adjective 

propositions in which they are found, to their antecedents, 
they are called relative pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is one that represents its ante- 
cedent and connects an adjective proposition to it. Ex. 
— I who speak, am he. 

The relative pronouns are who, which, what and that. 

Give sentences containing these relative pronouns. Name the 
antecedent of each pronoun, and name the adjective proposition that 
is connected to it. 

Fill the following blanks with relative pronouns, observing and 
stating for what the different ones stand, — whether for persons, for 
inferior animals, or for things. 

The man aspires to nobility of character, will at- 
tain it. My friend society rejected, was received by 

the great souls of earth. Society, so many worship, 

is a hard mistress. Who does not admire Sheridan's black 

steed took him from Winchester on that terrible 

day ? The house stands on the hill, can not be hid- 
den. John's mother, worked hard to educate him, 

now has her reward. The flower blooms unseen, 

blooms as sweetly as one grows in the King's garden. 

The lion has enjoyed freedom, loses somewhat 

of his nobility by being caged. The woman has lost 

her soul-freedom, has lost somewhat of noble beauty 
Give John he wants. I keep I have. 

In the last two examples, what two words can you use instead of 
what? 

From the above examples, you see that who represents 
persons, which, inferior animals and things, that, persons, 
animals or things, and that what is used in place of the 
thing which, those things which, that thing which, &c. 

As is a relative when it follows many, such, and same. Ex. — He 
has such books as he desires. 
Define declension. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 





Singular. 


Norn. 


who, 


Pos. 


whose, 


Obj. 


whom ; 




Singular. 


Norn. 


which, 


Pos. 


whose, 


Obj, 


which ; 




Singular. 


Nom. 


.hat, 


Pos. 


whose, 


Obj. 


that ; 




Singular 


Nom. 


what, 


Pos. 


___. 


Obj. 


what 



Plural. 
who, 
whose, 
whom. 

Plural. 
which, 
whose, 
which. 

Plural. 
that, 
whose, 
that. 

Plural. 
what, 

what. 

Flowers that bloom in autumn, are not usually fragrant. 

"What is the relative in this sentence ? What its antecedent? 
Read the adjective proposition. Read its subject. What word con- 
nects, or relates, the subordinate proposition to flowers ? Since that 
connects a subordinate proposition to the word to which the proposi- 
tion belongs, what kind of connector is it? Since it connects an 
adjective proposition to its antecedent, what kind of subordinate con- 
nector is it? The pronoun that is used as what part of the subordi- 
nate proposition, and as what kind of connector? Give the two 
uses of tha t. What is its case? Why? 

The man whom we honor, is honorable. 

Name the relative. Name its antecedent. What does it connect 
to its antecedent? What is the simple predicate of the subordinate 
proposition? Whom are we said to honor ? What word in the sub- 
ordinate proposition represents this man ? The pronoun whom limits 
the verb by showing what? Then, in what case is it? What are the 
two uses of whom in this sentence? 

The person who desires respect, must be respectable. 

Who is in what case? What does it connect to its antecedent? 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. I49 

The " Old Man of the Mountain," which we saw on that 
misty morning, has a grand, calm face. 

Read the subordinate proposition. Read the verb of the subordi- 
nate proposition. What does the sentence say we saw? What word 
in the subordinate proposition represents the name of this object? In 
what case is which? Why? What does it connect ? Name its two 
uses. 

The tree that held the Charter, is the Charter Oak. 
That plays what two parts ? 
I obey the lady whose rule is love. 

Whose connects what ? Of what case is it ? Why ? How many 
uses has each relative we have considered? It is always so. 

My father, whom all loved, was fond of flowers. Do 
you pity the person who has not the courage to say no ? 
The girl and the cat that were in the room, were having 
a frolic. Mt. Washington, which is the highest of the 
White Mountains, has a rocky summit. DeQuincy's vice 
was opium eating, which is acknowledged to be a cruel, 
fascinating tyrant. Smoking is a habit that is usually dis- 
agreeable to the one that does not indulge in it. The 
picture that hangs on the wall, represents a dark, little 
maid. This ornament, which is the only one I have, 
came from Rome. Bring me the flower that has the pur- 
ple calyx. How old is the man who speaks to-night? 
My only brother, who was lost at sea, was fond of Natural 
History. The ships and the crew that were lost, went 
down off Cape Hatteras. How dreadful that those who 
need strength, should so squander it ! 

Study these sentences. Read the subordinate adjective proposi- 
tions that seem necessary to identify an object. Read those that are 
not necessary to identify an object, but are used to give an additional 
idea. Which of these two kinds of adjective propositions is separated 
from the antecedents by the comma? Which is not? What mark 
follows each subordinate adjective proposition that is not at the close 
of a sentence ? (When the adjective proposition is very short, it is not 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



followed by the comma.) What mark may follow the adjective prop- 
osition when it is at the close of a sentence? Read sentences that 
prove this. 

In some of the adjective propositions, the relative that is used ; in 
others, which is employed. Which of these relatives is found in prop- 
ositions that are necessary to identify? Which of them seems to be 
preferred when the proposition is an additional, but not a necessary 
idea? 

That is generally preferred to which when it joins a restrictive 
proposition to its antecedent. Ex. — I love the flag that moved 
through the perilous fight. Which is preferred when it introduces an 
explanatory proposition. 

When is which preferred to that ? Give two examples. 

That is preferred to who or which when the antecedent represents 
both persons and things. Ex. — The organ and the organist that were 
first, have been surpassed. 

That is used after who employed as an antecedent, and frequently 
after personal pronouns so used. Ex. — Who that knows her, does 
not love her? I that speak saw it. 

That is generally used after some, same, ait, each, any, no or very. 
Ex. — I have no friend that can come. This is the very man that 
broke his word. 

Different kinds of pronouns should not be used in the same con- 
struction. Ex. — He likes what he has, and has that which he likes. 
I saw thy face as you looked up. One who came, did not see all that 
were here. Correct these sentences. 

Write upon the following subjects, sentences containing relative 
pronouns. Employ the right pronouns, and punctuate correctly. If 
unacquainted with the subjects, consult an encyclopedia.* 

The size of the moon. Geodes. 

The stems of leaves. Petals. 

The city of Washington. Snow-flakes. 

John Brown, School. 

Harriet Beecher Stowe. Long dresses. 

Work for women. Charles Sumner. 

Evils of idleness. Louis Agassiz. 

*Note. — The pupil may be referred to the suggestions on composition writing, 
found in the last chapters of this book. He should be encouraged to search for 
and to apply rules that may be demanded by his sentences. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 151 

Write a sentence containing an adjective proposition and an ad- 
verbial one ; one, containing an adverbial proposition and an ob- 
jective one ; one, containing an adjective proposition and an objective 
one ; one, containing an adjective proposition, an adverbial propo- 
sition and an objective proposition. 



PARSING RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

That man who reads so well, is Mr. Burbank. 

Who represents the noun man and connects an adjective proposi- 
tion to it ; hence, it is a relative pronoun. Declined, — Singular and 
plural, 110m. who, pos. whose, obj. whom. It is third person, sin- 
gular number, masculine gender, thus agreeing with its antecedent, 
according to the rule, — A pronoun must agree, etc. It is used as 
subject of the subordinate proposition ; hence, it is of the nominative 
case. Rule, — . It connects the subordinate adjective proposition, who 
reads so we//, to man ; hence, it is a subordinate, adjective connector. 

In a similar way, parse the relatives of the following sentences : 

The child, who is sleeping so soundly now, and about 
whom we have so many conversations, loves birds and 
flowers. Our old house, which has stood more than a 
hundred years, is moss-grown. The man whom the horse 
injured, was attended by the young physician who studied 
in Vienna. The ship that we saw, has sailed to those 
islands that produce spices. Take whose aid you will. 

The abbreviated form, given below, may be used. 

The sunshine that falls upon the wall, ripens the grapes. 

That is a relative pronoun, standing for its antecedent, sunshine. 
Declined, — Sing, and plural, nom. that, pos. whose, obj. that. It is 
third, singular, neuter, to agree with its antecedent, according to the 
rule, — A pronoun must agree, etc. Being used as the subject of the 
subordinate proposition, it is in the nominative case. Rule, — The 
subject of a proposition is in the nominative case. As it connects the 
subordinate adjective proposition, that fa//s upon the wall, to its ante- 
cedent, sunshine, it is a subordinate adjective connector. 



I5-* 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



I know what you have. 

What is a. relative pronoun, including both the antecedent and 
relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing zuhich. That 
may be parsed as an adjective limiting thing ; thing, as a noun, com- 
mon, third, singular, neuter, and being used as the object of the verb 

know, is in the objective case. Rule, . Which may be parsed 

as a relative pronoun, standing for its antecedent, thing. Declined, — 
Sing, and plural, norm which, pos. whose, obj. which. It is third, 
singular, neuter, to agree with its antecedent, according to the rule, 
— A pronoun must agree, etc. Being used as the object of the verb, 

have, it is in the objective case. Rule, . As it connects the 

subordinate, adjective proposition, which you have, to thing, it is a 
subordinate, adjective connector. Or, what may be parsed first, as 
antecedent, in the objective case, object of the transitive verb know, 
and next, as relative, object of the verb have. 

J - that 

I know thing \ you 
(_ ' ) have. | which 



1 know | that 



have. I which 



or, 



know ] what (antecedent) -| 7 OU . , L , , ,. » 
v ' ( have I what, (relative.) 



Order of parsing relative pronouns. 

i. Part of Speech. 

2. Class 

3. Agreement with its antecedent. 

4. Rule for agreement. 

5. Case. 

6. Rule for case. 

7. Its office as a connector. 

Analyze the following sentences. According to the above form, 
parse the relative pronouns, also, parse the nouns, personal pronouns, 
and prepositions. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



.13 



The chief misfortunes that befall us in life, can be traced 
to some vices or follies that we have committed. 
The 
chief 
( that 



misfortunes 



us 
befall in lifc 



can be traced 



vices 
to or 
follies 



some 
' we 



have committed. I that 



God is on the side of virtue, for he who dreads punish- 
ment, suffers it ; and he who deserves it, dreads it. 

" he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts, 

Benighted walks under the mid-day sun." 

Is this pen yours or mine ? 

" Fair is thy site, Sorrento, green thy shore, 

Black crags behind thee pierce the clear, blue skies ; 
The sea, whose borderers ruled the world of yore, 
As clear and bluer still before thee lies." — Bryant. 

With the eye of knowledge, we see the candle slowly 
turning into invisible gases, nor doubt, for an instant, that 
the matter of which the candle was composed, is still ex- 
isting. 

•' Our sins, like our shadows, 
When our day 's in its glory, scarce appear ; 
Towards our evening, how great and monstrous !" 

— Shakspcare. 
Oh, Liberty ! can man resign thee, 

Once having felt thy generous flame ? 
Can dungeons, bolts and bars confine thee, 
Or whips thy noble spirit tame ? 

— Marseilles Hymn. 

I hear what men say ; I remember what is worthy. 
The travelers went to the room in which the great man 
breathed his last, After what has been said, it will be 
seen that bats are mammals. By the brook that flows 
near the castle, we sat down to dream. 

Correct the following. Give the reasons for your corrections. 

The men what was seen was Foreigner's. She was a 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

poor widow woman which had lost her only Son in the 
Army. Just as soon as the two boy's hats were off of their 
heads they began to cry i will tell the teacher of you. 
Many a man who is old look back upon their early day's 
with melancholy. The flower who blooms so sweet is a 
rose. If every one of you do not reform they will come 
to a miserable end. Any girl that can attend school and 
that has ambition may become intelligent. Those which 
are educated should teach them which are not. All the 
men which was there gave money to build the church of 
which we are now so proud. The boy what I saw was a 
going a hunting. A poor fly which considered himself as 
large as them horses, became so swelled up with pride, 
that he bursted. This was the greatest civil war which 
ever convulsed a continent. My only brother which I 
loved very dear, has enlisted under Capt. Smith who we 
all respect. When the family returned came its two dogs, 
who saved the children from being drowned a year ago 
come last July. Who do you go to school to ? 

By study of the sentences in this chapter, answer the following 
questions : 

In which propositions, principal or subordinate, are the personal 
pronouns found ? In which are the relative found ? Which pronouns 
show person by their form ? Which never do? Which are subordi- 
nate connectors? Which are not? Write the differences between 
personal and relative pronouns, 

A compound relative pronoun is who, which or what, 
with ever, so, or soever annexed to it. Ex. — Whoever de- 
sires may go. Whoever is equivalent to he who, or any 
person who. The compound relatives are equivalent to 
an indefinite antecedent and a relative. 

Include in sentences the compounds of the following: 

Who, whom, which, whose, what. 

Each compound pronoun is equivalent to what words? Parse the 
compounds in the sentences you write. 



PRONOUNS. 155 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 



Who comes here ? What have you in your hand ? 
Whom will they choose ? Whose faith is plighted ? What 
can we do ? Who is that man ? Whom have we for 
teacher ? Which is John ? 

Define an imperative sentence ; a declarative ; an exclamatory ; 
an interrogative. What are the simple predicates of the above inter- 
rogative sentences? Why? Of what does each affirm? Answer 
each one by using a declarative sentence. 

What word that occurs in the question, is omitted in the answer ? 
What part of speech is substituted for it? Answer each question in 
the examples, by the use of one word. What part of speech is each 
of these words ? 

Read from the questions the words that represent the nouns or pro- 
nouns given as answers. What parts of speech are they? How do 
you know? What part of speech seems to be the one important in- 
terrogative word in each sentence? 

An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a 
question. It is the one word to which the answer replies. 
The interrogative pronouns are who, which and what, with 
their variations. They are declined like the relatives. 

Write interrogative sentences each containing one of the following 
words : 

Who, what, whom, whose, which. 

Include in sentences the same words used as relative pronouns. 

From your observation of interrogative sentences, tell me whether 
or not the antecedents of interrogative pronouns are expressed. 

Ask questions containing interrogative pronouns, that can be an- 
swered by the following words: John, a carpenter, gold, running, 
Shakspeare, drinking, Hemans, lions, to ride, schools, fleece, pride, 
humility. 

Name the interrogative and the relative pronouns in the following, 
and tell why each belongs to its class : 

I do not know a person that would refuse to help. His 
cry, " Who will help me?" was heard far and near. 
Whom we love, Ave sometimes criticise most severely. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

What is worse than lying? Whose poems do you admire 
most? Which do you choose? Who runs so fast ? Who 
ran in my walks ? I know the one whom you serve. The 
man whose eyes cannot see worth where it exists, is blind. 
Who likes the city that has no natural beauty ? 



PARSING OF INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, 

Who sees the ship ? 

Who is a pronoun used in asking a question ; hence, it is interroga- 
tive. It represents an unknown antecedent. Declined, — Sing, and 
plural, nom. who, pos. whose, obj. whom. Third, singular, (seen from 
verb), unknown gender. It is used as the subject, (or to inquir for 
the subject,) hence it is in the nominative case. Rule, . 

Parse the relatives and interrogatives in the sentences above. 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

You may have that book, but I shall have this book. 
The wealthy have many comforts, but the poor have few 
comforts. John took the former course, but his brother 
took the latter course. The woman had little food, but 
she gave some food to her neighbor, Mary has some 
intelligence, but Dorcas has more intelligence. 

Of how many propositions does each of the above consist? How- 
are the propositions with regard to rank? What kind of sentences 
are they? Why? Read the adjectives in the above. Why are they 
adjectives? Do they express quality? Since they limit the applica- 
tion of nouns without expressing quality, they are called limiting ad- 
jectives. What is a limiting adjective? Are the above sentences 
pleasant to your ear? Improve each. What part of speech have you 
omitted? What part of speech has taken its place? Since these lim- 
iting adjectives are used instead of nouns, what parts of speech have 
thev become? 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 157 

An adjective pronoun is an adjective used in the 
place of a noun. Ex. — Such men as one meets in society. 

The principal adjective pronouns are, this, that, these, 
those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, 
neither, some, one, none, any, other, another, all, whole, 
such, much, both, few, fewer, fewest, first, last, little, least, 
many, own, same, several, sundry, certain, divers, enough. 

Use the above adjective pronouns in sentences, first giving a sen- 
tence in which each word will be an adjective, then one in which it 
will be an adjective pronoun. Ex. — You may have either apple, and 
John may have either. 

Adjective pronouns are parsed thus : 

We know some persons who have true nobility of char- 
acter. Have you known many ? 

Many is a word used both as an adjective and as a noun ; hence, it 
is an adjective pronoun. It stands for the noun persons ; hence, 
third, plural, common, to agree with its antecedent according to the 
rule, — A pronoun must agree, etc. Being used as the object of the 
verb have known, it is in the objective case. Rule, . 

Parse the following adjective pronouns : 

The young have many joys ; the old have fewer. How 
many peaches grow and ripen this year, yet I have not 
one! Though all turn from you, yet will not I. Both 
went to the city ; one went this way the other that. 

" Some fight for hope of booty, 
Some to defend their all." 

The old buildings are small; the new ones large. Vir- 
tue and vice are before you ; this leads to peace, that to 
misery. They love each other. They each love the other. 
Take either hotel ; each is bad ; neither will please you. 

Review pronouns thoroughly from the following diagram. De- 
fine and illustrate each term contained in it. 

f Personal. 

T) I Relative. 

Pronouns,- T , 

j Interrogative. 

(_ Adjective. 



58 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Parse the nouns, pronouns and prepositions in the following sen- 
tences. Analyze the sentences and name the parts of speech contained 
in them. 

The fur of the hare has its uses. Before the introduc- 
tion of silk for the purpose, it was employed in the man- 
ufacture of gentlemen's hats. Who that knows the value 
of character, can sell it for worldly station ? What in- 
duced him, no one knows. ** They are never alone that 
are accompanied with noble thoughts." — Sir Philip Sid- 
ney. " He cometh unto you with a tale which holdeth 
children from play, and old men from the chimney cor- 
ner." — Ibid. Put your trust in God, my boys, and keep 
your powder dry. Prove all things ; hold fast that which 
is good. It is hard for thee to kick against tine pricks. 
If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him 
drink ; for in so doing, thou shalt heap coals of fire on 
his head. " He smote the rock of the national resources, 
and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He 
touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprung 
upon its feet." — Webster, on Hamilton. 

' Come one ! come all ! this rock shall fly 
From its firm base as soon as I." — Scoti, 

" To live in hearts we leave behind, 
Is not to die." — Campbell. 

" He prayeth best, who loveth best." — Wkittier. 



ADJECTIVES., 

An adjective is a word that belongs to a noun or pro- 
noun and limits its application j as, The heavy rains make 
the ground moist. He is good. 

Name the adjectives in the following. Why is each an adjective? 

Let the answer be given thus : belongs to the noun or pro- 
noun that it limits ; therefore, it is an adjective. Name the adjec- 
tives that limit the application of nouns by denoting quality ; thus, 

limits the application of by showing quality. Name 

those that limit the application of nouns without showing quality ; 

thus, limits the application of without showing quality. 

Read those that are used with a copula to form the simple predicate, 
(predicate adjectives). 

The ripe orange is sweet. A poor picture is worse than 
none, for it gives false ideas. On this cold, damp, foggy 
day, we sit in our narrow rooms and long for old Sol to 
send a few warm shafts through the mists. The horse is 
lame, poor and blind. Five tiny, blue violets grew by the 
side of an old granite rock. On the table, which is cov- 
ered with a heavy, green, woolen spread, is a dark paper- 
weight made from a beautiful stone, in which are several 
radiated fossils. The country is mountainous and grand, 
but so poorly supplied with vegetation that only a few 
brave, adventurous men and women ever come to feast 
their souls upon its beauty. She is little, but great. 
Those four books were given to that boy by several kind 
friends. 

In the above examples, you have named the adjectives that limit 
the application of nouns or pronouns by indicating quality ; and 
you have named those that limit without showing quality. Into how 

159 



l6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

many classes do you think adjectives can be divided ? What term 
would be applicable to those that express quality ? What term would 
be proper for those that limit without showing quality. 

A qualifying adjective is one that limits the application 
of a noun or pronoun by showing quality. 

A limiting adjective is one that limits the application 
of a noun or pronoun without showing quality. 

Name the limiting and the qualifying adjectives in the following : 
thus, One limits the application of the noun man without showing 
quality ; it is, therefore, a limiting adjective. Good limits the appli- 
cation of the noun man by showing quality ; it is, therefore, a quali- 
fying adjective. 

One good man is better for a community, than one 
hundred bad ones. On the stage, he was natural, simple 
and appreciative. In traveling through the mountains, 
one is constantly getting the most exquisite, as well as the 
grandest sights. One old, birch tree has fallen from its 
weight of years. Kind, loving nature covers the dead 
giant. She gives him a soft, beautiful, green shroud of 
delicate moss, which makes us forget that this luxurious 
life is only a sign of well concealed death. 

u Sleep on, thou pretty lamb," 

He hears the fond nurse say ; 
" And if angels stand at thy right hand, 

As now belike they may, 

And if angels meet at thy bed's feet, 

I fear them not this day." 

There are many ideas expressed by qualifying adjectives. In Part 
First you formed a list of them. Recall this, and state what the 
qualifying adjectives in the following sentences denote ; thus, Poor 
is a qualifying adjective ; it belongs to man which it limits by denot- 
ing condition. 

The poor, old, lame man is walking past the high, brick 
house, carrying, on his stooping shoulders, a large load of 
fine brooms. His patched garments, white face, thin hair 
and feeble steps show that his course on earth is nearly 
run. The erect, chubby boy, who is carrying a basket of 



ADJECTIVES, l6l 

large, round, ripe peaches, has a cheerful spirit and an 
honest character ; he will whistle in the face of trouble, 
and sing his way through many a dark path. The re- 
spected man should be respectable. 

A qualifying adjective is sometimes used to represent a quality and 
also the object that possesses it. Ex. — We honor the good (people). 
Adjectives so used, are preceded by the. 

Illustrate the above by properly using the following adjectives : 

Strong, wicked, deformed, persevering, upright, beauti- 
ful, boisterous, refined, gay, young, old. 



CLASSES OF LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 

Martha has one friend, but Emma has many friends. 
Three birds flew across the yard and alighted on the 
fourth tree. The first edition was bound too expensively 
for the public, but the third could be bought by nearly 
all lovers of Dickens. One hundred thousand men were 
ordered to the field by the President. Many friends de- 
sired to come ; several started ; nine arrived ; the tenth 
lost his way. The thrice-told tale was more interesting 
than ever. 

In the above examples, name the adjectives that tell exactly how 
many. Name those that show indefinite number; those that tell 
which one of several, or which one of a series ; those that indicate 
repetition. To what great class of adjectives does each adjective you 
have named, belong? Why? Since each expresses an idea of num- 
ber, what term might be given to this class? 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses number. 
From the examples of numeral adjectives, how many classes dc 
you infer there are ? 

f Cardinal, which show how many. 
Numeral } Ordinal, which show which one of a series, 
adjectives,^ Multiplicative, which show repetition. 

[_ Indefinite, which express indefinite number 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Classify the numeral adjectives in the preceding examples ; thus, 
Many belongs to friends, which it limits by showing indefinite num- 
ber ; it is, therefore, an indefinite numeral adjective. 

A book was lost. The book was lost. The poem was 
read. The farmer has lost an ox. The nation should 
pay its debt. An elk has long horns. A country should 
provide for the education of its people. 

Name the adjectives in the above. To what great class do they 
belong? Why? Which one shows you that a particular object is 
meant? Which shows that no particular object is meant? How 
many different adjectives are in the above? Name them. What 
does the show? What do a and an show? 

The adjectives <2, an and the are called articles. 

Form sentences in which a and an will be before plural nouns. 
Do you like the result ? Place the before the same nouns. Do you 
like the result? Place a and an before singular nouns. Place the 
before singular nouns. Do you like the result? Place a before nouns 
beginning with a vowel sound (ant, inkstand, ewe, elm, ox.) Place 
an before the same words. Which produces the more pleasant sound ? 
Place the before the same. What result have you? 

From the above experiments and questions, answer the following : 

A is used before words beginning with what sound? An is used 
before words beginning with what sound? The is used before words 
beginning with what sound ? A and an belong to nouns of what 
number ? Combine these four answers into a full statement of the 
uses of a, an and the. 

The is sometimes a word of euphony, /. e. it is used not 
to show that a particular object is meant, but to make the 
combination more agreeable to the ear — more musical. 
Ex. — The sky is blue. 

That boy is John ; this boy is Henry. Some children 
love their parents ; fewer children love and respect them. 
Every day has some joy in it, for into each day some light 
falls. One person goes to Europe ; another person goes 
to California. Some persons put their hope in princes ; 
other persons put their hope in horses. 



LIMITING ADJECTIVES. 



I6 3 



Those, 


Neither, 


Former, 


Some, 


Latter, 


One, 


Which, 


None, 


What, 


Any, 



Name the adjectives in the above. To what class do they belong? 
Why? What part of speech should be omitted in each sentence? 
Why? What class of adjectives takes the place of omitted nouns? 
What part of speech do they become ? Why ? 

Those limiting adjectives that become pronouns when the 
nouns are understood, are pronominal adjectives. 

What is an adjective pronoun ? What is a pronominal adjective ? 

The chief pronominal adjectives are: 

This, Each, Other, Fewer, Most, 

That, Every, Another, First, Own, 

These, Either, All, Last, Same, 

Whole, Little, Several, 

Such, Less, Sundry, 

Much, Least, Certain, 

Both, Many, Divers, 

Few, More, Enough. 

Use each one of the above as an adjective ; then as an adjective 
pronoun. Which indicate that only one object is meant? Which, 
more than one ? Which show indefinite number? Which, quality? 
Which show that a particular one is meant ? Which, that no partic- 
ular one is meant? Which indicate that an object is near in place 
or in time? Which, that it is far? 

Both indicates two ; several and sundry, more than two ; 
many, more than several. 

Own indicates possession with emphasis. 

Each, many a and every show that objects are considered 
separately. 

St:ch indicates likeness in quality, but not in degree. 
Ex. — He is such a man. — Do not say such a good man, 
but so good a man. 

Either indicates, when properly used, one or the other 
of two. 

One another and each other imply mutual, or reciprocal, 
action. — They respect each other; each one respects 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the other. One another implies more than two ; each 
other, two. 

If two or more adjectives and a singular noun be pre- 
ceded by an article, but one object is meant. — I saw a 
pink and white dress. If more than one object be meant, 
the article is repeated as many times as there are objects 
to be described. — I saw a pink and a white dress. I saw 
a maroon, and a black and white dress. I heard a loud, 
a faint, and a shrill cry. 

Correct the following : 

That picture we are examining, was valued at ten thou- 
sand dollars. You have treated this subject of yours 
better than I have that of mine. Several reasons of the 
two she gave were not well received. Any of the two 
apples are ripe. Take either of the seven. Give it to 
one or tother. These men who you traveled with were 
Jews. Both of my five children are in school, 'Many of 
the three came. The two friends enjoy one another. All 
the men received a thousand dollars and each one put 
nine hundred and fifty of it in the bank. Each of the 
vines were trained upon a frame. He was a idle ignorant 
man, I expect sundry of my two orange plants to ripen 
fruit. All the members of the school love each other. 
Many a rose of all that grows were born to blush unseen. 
I shall buy a inkstand and an copy-book. Many of my 
grand-parents were teachers. How are each of the books 
bound. Either one of the colors are becoming. The 
master has a interest in us. We all enjoy our own home 
best. We dislike such, hard examples. This story, that 
you told me last year, was repeated by that friend who is 
by my side. Those rings on my fingers was given me by 
foreigners. 

From the following diagram, review orally the subject of adjec- 
tives. Give an "example to illustrate each point. Emphasize the 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 1 65 

word in an example that illustrates the class that is being discussed, 
f Qualifying, 

f Articles, f Pronominals, 

Adjectives <( Limiti I J Cardinals, 

& | Numerals. •{ Ordinals, 

"] I Multiplicative, 

[_ (_ Indefinite. 

Incorporate the words of each of the following lines into a sen- 
tence : 

Alps, snow, a, glacier, frozen, staff. 

Grapes, Italy, festooned, trees, picturesque, picked, dark-eyed. 
Napoleon, poor, Russia, barefoot, soldiers, ambitious, fire. 
Coolies, Cuba, stolen, Africa, different, tribes, the. 
Lungs, weak, the, exercise, that, man, proper, food. 
Lowell, river, cotton, manufactures, those, immense, Southern. 
Plannah, harbor, fortified, storm, ships, safe, strongly. 
St. Paul, longest, consumptive, river, dying, bluffs, furs. 
True, earnest, an, better, person, wealth, that, pride. 
Washington, mother, Virginia, colt, truthful, characterized. 
Rocks, moss, those, water, friend, green, trickling, bright. 
Ferns, graceful, hanging, plumes, waving, grey, hundreds.* 
What kind of sentences have you formed from the above words ? 
Name the parts of speech. Classify the adjectives, and tell what idea 
each expresses. Parse the nouns, pronouns, and prepositions. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Since the Danube liver — which has a length of 1,750 miles — is 
said to be long, what adjective will describe the Amazon, which has a 
length of 4,000 miles? What adjective will describe the Mississippi, 

*Note. — The teacher should encourage the pupil to consult books of reference 
with regard to the subjects included in these columns. The exercises prepared, 
should be read in class by the pupils, and corrected by pupils and teacher. The 
foundation for clear, elegant composition may be formed long before the child has 
progressed so far as this. Whether it has been, or not, will depend largely upon the 
teacher. The pupil should be encouraged to consult those chapters on composi- 
tion, found near the close of the book. When the above words are incorporated 
into sentences, let them be read, criticised, and their peculiar excellences, and 
defects pointed out. 



l66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

which has a length of 4,500 miles? What quality does each of these 



Which has least of this quality? Do these rivers possess length in the 
same degree? Then, how do they possess it ? 

What quality has each of these lines? Have they the 
same amount or degree of length? Then, they possess 
length how ? 

Name the quality that you discover by tasting an apple. Name 
an object that possesses the same quality in a higher degree. Name 
an object that possesses the same quality in a degree still higher. Of 
these three objects, which has the least of this quality? Which has 
the quality in the highest degree ? Which, next to the highest ? Write 
in a column the adjectives that represent these three degrees of qual- 
ity. 

Name three objects that possess breadth in different degrees. 
Write the adjectives that represent the three degrees of this quality. 

Name three objects that possess redness in varying degrees, Write 
the adjectives in a column. Name three things that possess beauty 
in varying degrees. Write the adjectives. Name three objects that 
possess different degrees of largeness. Write the adjectives. 

A city one hundred miles distant might be called a far city. A 
city five hundred miles distant would be called what? One, one 
thousand miles distant would be called what, when speaking of the 
three cities? Is distance a quality that any object possesses? 

Adjectives, then, may represent, beside varying quali- 
ties, other things that vary ; as, distance and amount ; as, 
far, farther, farthest, little, less, least. 

Write three adjectives that represent various amounts of bread. 

A man, who gives food, clothing and help of various kinds to those 
who need it, is called generous. What adjective will describe a per- 
son who gives more in proportion to his ability ? What adjective 
would describe a person who gives still more? Write the adjectives 
representing these three degrees of generosity. What adjective de- 
scribes the person who gives less than the generous man? What 
adjective describes the person who gives still less? Write the adjec. 
tives representing the three degrees. These persons, of whom we have 
spoken, possess what quality? In the same, or in different degrees? 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. l6j 

Compare the Pacific, the Atlantic, and the Indian Oceans with 
regard to size. We say the Indian Ocean is large. What adjective 
describes the Atlantic? What, the Pacific? Write the three adjec- 
tives. There is a variation in the size of the oceans. Is there a 
variation, or difference, in the adjectives that represent these different 
sizes ? 

Compare the White, the Rocky, and the Andes Mountains with 
regard to height. Is there a variation, or difference in their height? 
If the heights vary, should the adjectives that represent them, vary? 
Write the three adjectives that represent the three degrees of height. 
What one quality does each adjective represent? Does that which 
they represent vary? Should the representation correspond with that 
represented? Then, why have you varied the adjectives ? 

Comparison of adjectives is a variation in the form 
of adjectives to correspond with a variation in that which 
they represent. 

Comparison of adjectives grows out of the comparison 
of objects. 

Think of the different lengths of cords, streets, streams, etc. What 
can you say of the number of degrees of length ? What can you say 
of the number of degrees of beauty possessed by flowers, leaves, pic- 
tures, faces, landscapes, etc? 

Although there are so many degrees of quality, there 
are but three degrees of comparison of adjectives. These 
three degrees are usually sufficient to express our ideas 
of quality, etc. 

The three degrees of comparison are the positive, the 
comparative and the superlative. 

An adjective that expresses quality, etc., without com- 
parison, is in the positive degree ; as, The good boy. 
The tall tree. Many books. 

The generous man. A more generous man. 

The most generous man. A less generous man. 

The brave girl. The least generous man. 

The bravest girl. The braver girl. 

The least brave girl. The less brave girl. 



68 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



The more distant city. 
The most distant city. 



The distant city. 
The least distant city. 
The less distant city. 
In the above examples, name the adjectives that represent quality, 
etc., without showing that any comparison has been made ; Those 
that show that a comparison has been made ; Those that show a 
higher degree than the positive ; Those that show a lower degree ; 
Those that show the highest degree ; Those that show the lowest de- 
gree. 

Adjectives that represent a higher or a lower degree 
than the positive, are in the comparative degree ; as, 
The more lovely character. The less obedient child. 

Adjectives that represent the highest or the lowest de- 
gree of quality, etc., are in the superlative degree ; as, 
The best boy. The least desirable way. 

What degrees indicate that a comparison has been made? What 
degree gives no hint of comparison ? 

Compare good, long, fine, few, beautiful, green, sweet, 
fair, strong, religious. 

Positive . Comparative. Superlative. 

Large, larger, largest. 

Fine, finer, finest. 

Coarse, coarser, coarsest. 

Brave, braver, bravest. 

Long, longer, longest. 

Broad, broader, broadest. 

Short, shorter, shortest. 

Sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

To the first four adjectives,what letter has been added to form the 
comparative ? What letters have been added to the positive to form 
the superlative? 

To the positive of the last four adjectives, what letters have been 
added to form the comparative ? What letters to form the superla- 
tive? The positive degree consists of how many syllables? 

Beautiful, sublime, intelligent, generous, industrious, 
intemperate. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



169 



Of how many syllables do the above adjectives consist? Prefix to 
the positive of these adjectives the word moie or less. What degree 
is thus formed ? How do you know ? To the positive, prefix the 
words most and least. What degree is thus formed ? Write the com- 
paratives of good } bad, much, far. Are these adjectives compared 
according to either of the above methods, or rules? 

They follow no rule and, hence, are irregularly com- 
pared. 

Adjectives of one syllable are regularly compared by adding what 
to the positive to form the comparative? By adding what to the pos- 
itive to form the superlative? Adjectives of more than one syllable 
are regularly compared by prefixing more, or less to the positive to 
form what ? By prefixing most or least to form what ? 

Write these rules in full. 

The following are the chief adjectives of irregular com- 
parison : 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 



Good, 


better, 




best. 


Bad, ) 








111, [ 


worse, 




worst 


Evil, ) 








Little, 


less, (les 


sser,, 


least. 


Much, ) 
Many, j 


more, 




most. 


Far, 


farther, 




farthest. 


Hind, 


hinder, 




hindmost 


Near, 


nearer, 




nearest or next. 


Late, 


later, 




latest or last. 


Old, 


older or 


elder, 


oldest or eldest. 




upper, 




uppermost. 




inner, 




innermost or inmost 




outer, 




outmost or utmost. 


Top, 






topmost. 




Southern, 






southernmost. 



Some adjectives have neither positive nor superlative 
as. Minor, major, interior, superior. 



lyo ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Other irregular adjectives lack what degrees? 

Adjectives that imply number, must agree with the 
nouns and pronouns to which they belong; as, These 
girls ; not, That girls. Ten yards ; not, Ten yard. 

Proper adjectives and those that represent unvarying 
qualities, are not compared. Ex. — American, perpendic- 
ular, round, erect. 

Compare the following adjectives : 

Full, good, oily, hot, nice, late, flat, dim, just, much, 
thick, broad, fit, slim, large, ripe, funny, honest, round, 
strong, little, merry, square, perfect, diseased, diligent, 
beautiful, convenient, handsome, confident, sorrowful, dis- 
creet, ill-famed, kind-hearted, bad-humored, long-headed, 
good-natured, bottomless, indulgent, delightful. 

In what degree are the following : 

Best, exact, elder, full, first, noble, hollow, many, little, 
stronger, most, more expert, nearer, nearest, sun burn" 
less convenient, more graceful, least sluggish. 

Include each of the above in sentences. 

Form adjectives from the following words: thus, Music, musical. 

Rock, gift, need, wind, meal, duty, envy, joy, talk, fuse, 
force, law, salt, part, word, gift, cloud, notion, brute, mu- 
sic, sense, habit, earth, expect, spirit, define, remark, re- 
sist, youth, thank, flower, victory, epicure, commerce, 
Europe, triumph, luxury, compose, merchant, execute, 
comprehend, short-sighted. 

Include the above in spoken sentences. Include the adjectives 
formed from them in spoken sentences. 

Write a simple sentence containing adjectives in the positive de- 
cree ; a simple sentence, containing adjectives in the positive and in 
the comparative degrees ; a compound sentence, containing the super- 
it ive of an irregular adjective ; a simple sentence, containing a pro- 
noun for subject, and an adjective in the superlative degree ; a com- 
pound sentence, containing a relative pronoun in the objective case, 
and an adjective that cannot be compared ; a sentence, containing two 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 171 

subordinate propositions, in each of which there is a pronoun and an 
adjective ; a simple sentence, containing an expletive and a limiting 
adjective. 

What is comparison of adjectives? What is a relative pronoun? 
Define a proper noun. Define case. Give the two principal rules 
for forming the plurals of nouns. What adjectives are not compared? 
Out of what does comparison of adjectives grow ? When are adjectives 
in the positive degree? The comparative? The superlative? 

In describing objects, what part of speech do you most frequently 
use? What part of speech do you use when you affirm? 

In parsing adjectives the following order is followed : 

i. Part of speech. 

2. Class. 

3. Comparison. 

4. Degree 

5. Belonging to that which it limits by showing . 

6. Rule. 

Young men should not spend their money for that which 
is not bread. 

Young belongs to and limits the noun men ; hence, it is an adjec- 
tive. It expresses quality ; hence, it is a qualifying adjective. It is 
compared, — young, younger, youngest. It represents quality without 
comparison • hence, it is in the positive degree. It belongs to men, 
which it limits by showing age. Rule. — An adjective belongs to the 
word it limits. 

John could not reach the highest nail. 

Highest belongs to and limits the noun nail\ hence, it is an ad- 
jective. It does not express quality ; hence, it is limiting. It is 
compared, — high, higher, highest. It represents the highest degree ; 
hence, it is in the superlative degree of comparison. It belongs to 
nail, which it limits by showing the position. Rule, . 

In a similar manner, parse the adjectives in the following : 

The red apple is sweet. Straight trees grow in dark 
woods. The trembling leaves indicate a gentle breeze. 
The longest bone in the body is the femur. Russian 
leather has a peculiar odor. A botanical party saw a 
night-blooming cereus last evening. Its petals were pure 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

white ; its stamens and pistil delicate yellow. The entire 
blossom measured twelve inches from side to side. This 
beautiful flower grows upon an ugly plant, and its native 
place is the dry, barren desert. A moral lesson may be 
drawn from the cereus. If it, out of its poor soil can form 
so rare a flower, ought not human lives to blossom into 
beauty, even though their surroundings be barren and 
cheerless ? It blooms in the night ; so may the heart in 
the night of adversity. The homely plant gives little 
token of its power to produce so royal a blossom ; — many 
a homely man and woman, whom the world does not 
notice, may be storing up juices pressed from hard expe- 
rience, which, one day, may take form and show them- 
selves in heroic blossoming. 

The abbreviated method, by which you may parse the adjectives 
in the next sentences, is given below. 

Those rainy days were most delightful. 

Those is an adjective, limiting ; not compared ; belongs to days, 
which it limits by showing that some particular days are meant. 
Rule. — Adjectives belong to the words they limit. 

Rainy is an adjective, qualifying ; compared,- — rainy, more rainy, 
most rainy, less rainy, least rainy ; positive degree, belongs to days, 
which it limits by denoting character. Rule, . 

Most delightful is an adjective, qualifying ; compared, — delightful, 
more delightful, most delightful ; superlative degree, being used with 
the copula is to form the simple predicate, it belongs to the subject, 
days, which it limits by showing character or the effect of the days. 
Rule, . 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, prepositions and adjectives in the fol- 
lowing sentences. Name all the parts of speech. Read the adjective 
elements that are not adjectives. To what class do they belong? 
Read the subordinate propositions and tell to what words they are 
subordinate, and what they denote. (The teacher will introduce as 
much of analysis as the pupils are able to master. Review constantly 
the points previously considered.) 

Thus the child came to be an old n' — - 1 his once 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 1 73 

smooth face was wrinkled, and his steps were slow and 
feeble, and his back was bent. One night as he lay upon 
his bed, his children standing around, he cried, as he had 
cried so long ago : "I see the star!" — Dickens. 

The hand is almost valueless at one end of the arm, 
unless there is a brain at the other end. — Horace Mann. 

Lost, yesterday, somewhere between sunrise and sun- 
set, two golden hours, each set with sixty diamond minutes. 
No reward offered, for they are gone forever. — Ibid. 

Are not great mistakes committed in the government 
of children, by acting upon the supposition that they can 
grow strong in virtuous resolutions in a single day ? — 
Ibid. 

How sad it is when the wind is not tempered to the 
shorn lamb ; when the solitary, whose hearts are shrivel- 
ing, are not set in families ! — O. W. Holmes. 

Immortal Love, forever full, 
Forever flowing free, 
Forever shared, forever whole, 
A never ebbing sea. — Whittier. 

The day is cold, and dark, and dreary ; 

It rains, and the wind is never weary. 

The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, 

But at every gust the dead leaves fall, 

And the day is dark and dreary. — Longfellow. 

Whene'er a noble deed is wrought, 
Whene'er is spcken a noble thought, 

Our hearts, in glad surprise, 

To higher levels rise. 
The tidal wave of deeper souls 
Into our inmost being rolls, 

And lifts us unawares 

Out of all meaner cares. — Longfellow. 

Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale, 

Vexing the ears of a drowsy man. — Shakespeare. 

Blow, blow, thou winter wind, 
Thou art not so unkind 

As man's ingratitude. — Ibid. 



VERBS.* 

A verb is a word that affirms. Verbs may affirm action, 
being, state, possession and ownership. Ex. — Birds sing. 
God is. Baby sleeps. I have John's book. The man 
owns many farms. 

Give sentences containing verbs that affirm these four things* 
Give four sentences containing verbs that affirm, without affirming 
either action, being, state, possession or ownership. 

A copulative verb is one that affirms an attribute of 
an object. It does not, however, express all the attributes 
intended to be affirmed. The Mississippi is " The Father 
of Waters." The stream is flowing. He seems well. 
Jewel was elected Governor. They were industrious. 

The chief copulative verbs are the different forms of 
the verb to be (is, am, are, were, was, be) ; the verbs, be- 
come, seem, appear ; and the passive forms of deem, style, 
name, call, consider, make, appoint, elect, create, consti- 
tute, render, esteem, think, regard, reckon, and some 
others. 

The verb to be is purely copulative. Other copulative verbs not 
only connect attributive words to subjects, but also express the attri- 
butes of appearance, action, etc. Hence the division sometimes made 
into pure and mixed copulative verbs. 

An attributive verb is one that in itself contains copula 
and attribute. Ex. — Fishes swim. The hawk catches 
chickens. Leaves grow. Purity exists. Grant conquered. 
Father rests. 

*Note. — For developing ideas of verbs, see Part First. 

174 



VERBS. 



ID 



Name the verbs in the following. State what they affirm. Class- 
ify them into copulative and attributive. Ex. — Hath contains copula 
and attribute, hence, it is an attributive verb. 

Simple duty hath no place for fear. The boy rode on 
the stage, till the driver caught sight of him. The man 
possesses some generous impulses, but lacks real principle. 
Helen has her brother's horse to drive whenever she- 
chooses. Joy is to come. The remark was true and 
timely. The general impression is, that the war must go 
on. The rose is a very beautiful flower. Have you eyes 
keen enough to see worth through poor garments ? Do 
be generous in your criticisms. He appeared serious. 
He seems scholarly. 

Describe, in the best language you can use, a sleigh-ride. Write a 
letter to your mother telling her of your real or imaginary visit to 
Niagara Falls. 

What do the verbs employed in these descriptions affirm? Of 
what do the simple predicates consist? 

In the following stanza, parse the parts of speech you have before 
considered. Name the verbs. What do they affirm ? 

Still thy love, O Christ arisen, 
Yearns to reach these souls in prison ! 
Through all depths of sin and loss, 
Drops the plummet of Thy cross. 
Never yet abyss was found 
Deeper than that cross could sound. 

In deciding to what class a word belongs, its office, not 
its form alone, must be considered. 

The italicized words belong to what class? Will the doctor lance 
the boil with a knife? No, he will use a lance. The villain will fin 
the house, withyfo? from the furnace. There has hardly been a sum- 
mer day this summer. The farmer who works hard, has hard hands. 
I went to the fair, to see the fair lady fairly gain the prize. 

Use each of the following in such a manner as to represent differ- 
ent classes of words : 

Farm, shoe, man, shears, new, hoe, fence, plow, well, 
weed, love, coop, ditch, plant, fly, feed, hive, return, land-, 
blind, gem, control, command, welcome. 



TENSE. 

What is measured by clocks, watches, and hour-glasses ? What 
name is given to all time that has gone ? What time is that which is 
to come ? What time is the now? 

Can you think of any time that is neither present, past nor future? 
Then what are the three divisions of time ? 

Think of all the past. Try to think back to the time when there 
was no past. Can you think, or conceive, of the length of the past? 

The past is inconceivably long. 

Think forward into the future. Can you imagine time discontin- 
uing in the future? How long is the future? 

What division of time is between the past and the future? Think 
of this division. Before you can really think of it, it has become what 
time ? 

It seems that the future, instant by instant, is passing into the past. 
Through what inconceivably small channel does it pass? 

The present is inconceivably short. 

We, however, speak of this hour, this day, this year, this 
century, as being present. These are divisions of time 
that contain the present. 

Mention an act that occurred in the past ; a being ; a possession ; 
a state ; an ownership. Name an act that is taking place in the 
present. Name an act, a being, a possession, and an ownership, that 
will take place in the future. Name an act, being, possession, state, 
and ownership that will require no time. 

Acts, beings, states, possessions, and ownerships require 

time. Verbs affirm acts, beings, states, possessions and 

ownerships ; hence, to be true representatives, they must 

represent time. 

176 



TENSE. 177 

What time is represented by the verbs in the following ? 

I ran. I am running. I shall run. I saw. I heard. 
I see. I walk. I shall be. Henry sleeps. I have a pen. 
You shall go. Boys will play to-morrow. Truth is. The 
mountain stands. Ignorance was. 

Change the form of each of the above verbs so that it will repre- 
sent a different time. 

Time represented by verbs is called Tense. Tense is 
that property of verbs that shows the time represented. 

How many divisions of time are there ? How many tenses should 
there be ? Why ? 

There are three tenses ; Past, Present and Future. 

Verbs that represent acts, beings, states, possessions 
and ownerships as past, are in the Past Tense. Ex. — The 
trees faded. The brooks were dry. Columbus discovered. 
The tower leaned. He had no means. 

Verbs that represent acts, beings, &c, a,s present, are in 
the Present Tense. Ex. — The leaves are trembling. The 
sun shines. The boy sleeps. Henry has friends. 

Verbs that represent acts, &c, as future, are in the 
Future Tense. Ex. — Horace will attend school. I shall 
have the picture. You will see J ames. Helen will read. 

Give the tense of each of the following verbs ; thus, Saw represents 
an act as past; it is, therefore, in the past tense. 

We saw the General. The sun was shining pleasantly 
when we started on our way. Will you go ? You shall 
repent. I am old. Thomas was not a believer. The 
books lie on the table. We are here. The baby rests. 
You were understood. 

" A very large part of the civilized race, so dress them- 
selves that by no possibility can they take a full breath. 
As the lungs are never fully inflated, their capability of 
expansion is gradually lessened." 



lj'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We hold educational reform to be the first of all reforms. 
Some desired to remain where their forefathers were ; 
others wished to progress. 

" Opinion is that high and mighty dame 
Which rules the world, and in the mind doth frame 
Distastes or likings." 

Be thou the first, true merit to befriend. 
In the above examples, the words shall and will are found in 
what tense ? 

They help to form this tense and are, therefore, help- 
ing, or auxiliary, verbs. 

Auxiliary verbs are those that help other verbs to ex- 
press tense and other properties. 

Principal verbs are those that affirm the acts, beings, 
states, &c. 

Shall and will are auxiliaries, or signs, of the future 
tense. 

Name an act that was completed, or perfected, in the past, Name 
one that will be completed in the future. Name one that has been 
completed in the time we call present. 

Actions, beings, states, possessions and ownership may 
be finished, or perfected, in either of the three divisions 
of time. Verbs may affirm this perfection, or completion. 
Ex. — I had written. You will have learned. I have 
studied to-day. 

The fact that verbs affirm the perfection of acts in 
either of the three divisions of time, gives rise to three 
tenses, called Perfect Tenses. 

The Perfect Tenses are the Past Perfect, the Present 
Perfect, and the Future Perfect. 

Why should there be three perfect tenses ? Why are they called 
perfect tenses ? 

Verbs that affirm acts, &c, as perfected in the past, are 
in the Past Perfect Tense. Ex. — I had seen you yesterday. 



TENSE 179 

Verbs that affirm acts, &c, as completed in the present, 
are in the Present Perfect Tense. Ex. — I have been ill. 
The unfortunate woman has been received kindly. 

Verbs that affirm acts, &c, as perfected in the future, 
are in the Future Perfect Tense. Ex. — The grass will 
have grown on her grave. The trees will have been shaken 
by the wind. 

What auxiliaries do you find in the above examples of verbs in the 
perfect tense ? What are the auxiliaries of the future tense ? 

Have and has are the signs of the present perfect tense ; 
had of the past perfect ; shall and will of the future ; 
and shall have and will have of the future perfect. 

What are the tenses of the following verbs ? (State, as before, 
what the verb does, and, hence, in what tense it is.) 

I hope I shall see my friend, General Sprague, when he 
returns from his trip to the West. Has James overcome 
his habit of swearing? The fire was burning brightly, 
when Richard, who had been to town, rushed in, saying : 
" A man is in the yard, apparently frozen to death." We 
all hurried out to see the poor fellow. Before three min- 
utes had passed, he was in a warm bed, being rubbed 
most vigorously. Warm flannels were wrapped about 
his body ; warm drinks given ; and soon we had the 
pleasure of seeing a glow come to the skin, showing that 
circulation was again established. I have often read of 
the luxuriant foliage of Brazil, and hope, some day, to see 
it with my own eyes. I shall have been here four months, 
before I learn to do the work well. 

In the above, tell the principal and the auxiliary verbs. Name 
the participles and the infinitives. Prepare to parse any noun, pro- 
noun, or adjective, that may be given you. Analyze, as far as pos- 
sible, the above sentences. 

Affirm an act by means of a verb in the past tense ; a being ; a 
state ; a possession ; an ownership. Affirm the same by means of 



l8o ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verbs in the present tense ; by means of verbs in the future tense. 
Use the words have, has and had as principal verbs. When so used, 
what do they denote ? Use them as auxiliaries. When so used, 
Avhat do they denote ? 

The principal parts of a verb are the present and past 
tenses, and the present and perfect participles. 

These are called the principal parts, because by means 
of them and by the use of auxiliaries, all the other parts 
of the verb are formed. The perfect tenses are formed 
by prefixing some form of the verb to have to the perfect 
participle. 

CLASSES OF VERBS. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

In what tense is each of the following verbs ? Write the parts, 
and either one of the perfect tenses of these verbs. With what letters 
do the past and the perfect tenses end ? What letter, or letters, have 
you added to the present to form the past and the perfect ? Do you 
think the past and the perfect tenses are formed in a uniform, or reg- 
ular, manner? 

Love, Walk, Saw,, 

Look, Light, Measure, 

Recite, Fail, Observe. 

Verbs that form their past and perfect tenses in this regu- 
lar manner, are regular verbs. 

A regular verb is one in which the past tense and the 
perfect participle are formed by adding d or ed to the present. 
In what tense is each of the following verbs ? Write their past 
and either one of their perfect tenses. 

See, Begin, Blow, Fly, 

Know, Steal, Speak, Think. 

Are the past and the perfect tenses of the above verbs formed by 
adding d or ed to the present ? Are they formed in a regular manner ? 
What term would describe such verbs ? 

An irregular verb is one in which the past tense and 
the perfect participle are not formed by adding d or ed to the 
present. 



TENSE. 



iSl 



Which language would be most easily learned, one in which all 
the verbs were regular, or one in which they were all irregular ? 
Why ? 

How are verbs classified with regard to their form ? 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS, 

The following list contains the principal parts of the 
irregular verbs. 

Those verbs that are marked R, have also the regular 
forms. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide, 




Abode, 


Abode. 


Arise, 




Arose, 


Arisen. 


Awake, 




Awoke, R. 


Awaked. 


Be or am, 




Was, 


Been. 


Bear (to br 


ing jorth), 


Bore, bare, 


Born. 


Bear (to carry), 


Bore, bare, 


Borne. 


Beat, 




Beat, 


Beaten, beat. 


Begin, 




Began, 


Begun. 


Belay, 




Belaid, r. 


Belaid. R. 


Bend, 




Bent, R. 


Bent. r. 


Bet, 




Bet, R. 


Bet. R. 


Bereave, 




Bereft, 


Bereft, r. 


Beseech, 




Besought, 


Besought. 


Bid, 




Bid, Bade, 


Bidden, bid. 


Bind, 




Bound, 


Bound. 


Bite, 




Bit, 


Bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 




Bled, 


Bled. 


Blend, 




Blent, R. 


Blent, r. 


Bless, 




Blest, R. 


Blest. R. 


Blow, 




Blew, 


Blown. 


Break, 




Broke, brake, 


Broken, broke. 


Breed, 




Bred, 


Bred. 


Bring, 




Brought, 


Brought. 


Build, 




Built, r. 


Built, r. 


Burn, 




Burnt, r, 


Burnt, r, 


Burst, 




Burst, 


Burst. 


Buy, 




Bought, 


Bought. 


Cast, 




Cast, 


Cast. 


Catch, 




Caught, r. 


Caught, r. 



l82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Participle. 


Chide, 


Chid, 


Chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


Chose, 


Chosen. 


Cleave (to adhere), 


Cleaved, clave, 


Cleaved. 


Cleave {to split), 


Clove, cleft, 


Cleft. R. 


Cling, 


Clung, 


Clung. 


Clothe, 


Clad, R. 


Clad, r.' 


Come, 


Came, 


Come. 


Cost, 


Cost, 


Cost. 


Creep, 


Crept, 


Crept. 


Crow, 


Crew, R, 


Crowed. 


Cut, 


Cut, 


Cut. 


Dare, {to venture), 


Durst, R. 


Dared. 


D-are, (to challenge), \ 


i. Dared, 


Dared. 


Deal, 


Dealt, r. 


Dealt, r. 


Dig, 


Dug, r. 


Dug. r. 


Do, 


Did, 


Done. 


Draw, 


Drew, 


Drawn. 


Dream, 


Dreamt, R. 


Dreamt. R. 


Dress, 


Drest, R. 


Drest. R. 


Drink, 


Drank, 


Drunk, drank. 


Drive, 


Drove, 


Driven. 


Dwell, 


Dwelt, r. 


Dwelt. R. 


Eat, 


Ate, eat, 


Eaten, or eat. 


Fall, 


Fell, 


Fallen. 


Feed, 


Fed, 


Fed. 


Feel, 


Felt, 


Felt. 


Fight, 


Fought, 


Fought. 


Find, 


Found, 


Found. 


Flee, 


Fled, 


Fled. 


Fling, 


Flung, 


Flung. 


Fly, 


Flew, 


Flown. 


Forbear, 


Forbore, 


Forborne. 


Forget, 


Forgot, 


Forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 


Forsook, 


Forsaken. 


Freeze, 


Froze, 


Frozen. 


Freight, 


Freighted, 


Fraught. R. 


Get, 


Got, 


Got, gotten. 


Gild, 


Gilt, r. 


Gilt. r. 


Gird, 


Girt, R. 


Girt. r. 



TENSE. 



ib'i 



Present. 


PasU 


Perfect Participle, 


Give, 


Gave, 


Given. 


Go, 


Went, 


Gone, 


Grave, En-, 


Graved, 


Graven. R. 


Grind, 


Ground, 


Ground. 


Grow, 


Grew, 


Grown. 


Hang {to take life, R, 


,), Hung, 


Hung. 


Have, 


Had, 


Had. 


Hear, 


Heard, 


Heard. 


Heave, 


Hove, R. 


Hoven. R. 


Hew, 


Hewed, 


Hewn, r, 


Hide, 


Hid, 


Hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


Hit, 


Hit. 


Hold, 


Held, 


Held, /widen. 


Hurt, 


Hurt, 


Hurt. 


Keep, 


Kept, 


Kept. 


Kneel, 


Knelt, R. 


Knelt. R. 


Knit, 


Knit, r. 


Knit. r. 


Know, 


Knew, 


Known, 


Lade, to loan {to dip, R.)Laded, 


Laden. R. 


Lay. 


Laid, 


Laid. 


Lead, 


Led, 


Led. 


Leap, 


Leapt, r. 


Leapt. R. 


Learn, 


Learnt, R. 


Learnt. R. 


Leave, 


Left, 


Left. 


Lend, 


Lent, 


Lent. 


Let, 


Let, 


Let. 


Lie {to recline), 


Lay, 


Lain. 


Lie {to speak falsely), 


r. Lied, 


Lied, 


Light, 


Lit, R. 


Lit. R. 


Lose, 


Lost, 


Lost. 


Make, 


Made, 


Made. 


Mean, 


Meant, 


Meant. 


Meet, 


Met, 


Met. 


Mow, 


Mowed, 


Mown. R. 


Pass, 


Past, R. 


Past. R. 


Pay, Re-, 


Paid, 


Paid. 


Prove, 


Proved, 


Proven. R. 


Put, 


Put, 


Put. 


Quit, 


Quit, r. 


Quit, R. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In studying the above list of irregular verbs, you have 
observed that some verbs have more than one form. You 
have observed that some verbs lack one or more principal 
part. The first are called Redundant verbs. The 
second are called Defective verbs. 

What is a redundant verb ? Give examples. What is a defective 
verb ? Give examples. 

Give the principal parts of the following verbs, and tell whether 
they are regular or irregular, and to which class they belong : 



Teach, 


Set, 


Loom, 


Loose, 


Call, 


Flow, 


Come, 


Uphold, 


Bound, 


Welcome, 


Hurt, 


Tell, 


Mistake, 


Strive, 


May, 


Flee, 


Arise, 


Need, 


Plow, 


See, 


Fly, 


Give, 


Slay, 


Saw, 


Eat, 


Sit, 


Learn, 


Blind, 


Find, 


Land, 


Sow, 


Walk, 


See, 


Fling, 


Lie. 



Fill the following blanks with verbs and classify them : 

The blossoms in the yard. John for his 

poor mother. My history badly. The trees 

in the wind. The man as if he old. 

When age upon one, the eye , the hair , the 

steps , and finally reason to grow feeble. 

Remembering the list of irregular verbs, and the fact that the per- 
fect tenses are formed by prefixing some form of the verb to have to 
the perfect participle, correct, in every respect, the following. Write 
the corrected examples : 

Mary done the work. The man had broke the knife 
before the thief knowed it. We might have went just as 
well as nothing. The boys were shook so thorough by 
the master, they didn't hardly dare leave their seats. We 
seen him when he sneaked away with the candy he had 
hooked. We thought he had chose the worse way 
but it seemed he knowed best. We set up too late. 
The teacher sat him in a chair and there he set. The 
boy failed from the buildings' and braked his arm badly. 



TENSE. 185 

Marys' brother has got a habbit of coming to late to 
school when the days is cold. Do not lie your books on 
the chair. I am tired of being sick, ive laid and laid 
abed fer moren a whole month, that exercise is wrote 
purty good for one who misfortune has blowed about the 
world so constantly that their want no time fer him to 
have went to school. The enraged man has took his 
knife from his belt and drawed it upon the sailor whose 
ship heaved in sight only last knight. The birds has 
flowed over the mighty river what has overflown its 
Banks ? After he had strived morn a hundred times he 
winned the victory. I seen henry when he done it. he 
jist smite him on his arm afore the boy speaked a word 
to him. It was the goodest sight I ever see. the four 
horses drawed the carriage and all the fellers in it singed 
till the crowd had went more than a mile. Then a most 
saddest misfortune befelled 1 of the Performers, he had 
just singed the last song, when the driver druv the horse 
off the bridge and up sot the whole lode and this man 
had his arm breaked bad. The most sublimest scene I 
have ever saw is Niagara falls. 

Boston, masssep3o first 18 hundred and 75. my Dear 
uncle i hadnt got an idear that you should invite Me to 
spend chrestmust with you, But I accept with the biggest 
pleasure. Yours fraternally, Thos. H. Jones Esq 

TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

While at a farm during the summer, I saw the farmer start for his 
meadow with a scythe on his shoulder. What act do you think he 
was to perform with the scythe? Who was to perform the act? 
What was to he mown, or what was to receive the act of mowing? 
When the act of mowing was going on, who was the actor ? What 
was the receiver ? Can you think of this act being performed with- 
out an actor and a receiver ? This act seems to require how many 



1 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

When in the city, we frequently see men passing along with pots 
of paint and brushes in their hands. What work are they going to 
do ? Who will be the actors ? What may be the receivers ? Can 
this act be performed without an actor and a receiver ? Then the 
act of painting involves how many and what parties ? 

Let each member of the class perform the act of bieaking. Each 
tell what you broke. In the performance of this act, who were 
actors ? What were receivers ? Mowing, painting and breaking 
are acts that involve how many and what parties? 

Name other acts that involve two parties, — actor and receiver. 

In each of these acts, the act seems to originate with 
the actor, and then to be transferred to the receiver. 

Acts that may be transferred from the actor to the receiver, 
are transferable, or transitive acts. 

Name transitive acts performed by boys ; by girls ; by pupils ; by 
mothers ; by horses ; by musicians. Name transitive acts performed 
on a farm ; on a stove ; in a carpenter shop ; in a kitchen ; in a 
school. 

How do you know these are transitive acts ? Think of the act of 
running. Who might be the actor ? Can you think of anything 
that would be the receiver? The act of running involves how many 
and what parties ? The act of walking involves, necessarily, how 
many and what parties? The act of jumping? Are the acts of run- 
ning, jumping and walking transitive ? Why ? 

Acts that cannot be transferred from actor to receiver, are 
intransitive. 

Mention transitive and intransitive acts that a horse performs. 
Name transitive and intransitive acts that the cars, the sun, a mer- 
chant, a farmer, a physician do. 

Study the following sentences. Write the sentences that contain 
verbs representing transitive acts in one column, and those containing 
verbs representing intransitive acts in another : 

I love school. I run to it. Many walk. Jane eats 
peaches. The horse gallops. Cordelia learned music. 
Winnie wrote letters. The frog jumped from the stone. 
The great ship moves slowly. The party visited the Falls. 



TENSE, 187 

We went to New York, The water was falling. Mary 
was hurt by the stone. The carpet was soiled. 

The verbs that you have written in one column, represent what 
kind of acts ? The verbs in the other column represent what kind 
of acts ? Verbs that represent transitive acts, may be called what 
kind of verbs? Verbs that represent intransitive acts, may be called 
what kind of verbs? 

Name the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the above senten- 
ces, telling why you so name each. 

Study the following sentences. What does the first verb repre- 
sent? What is the possessor? What is possessed ? What is affirmed 
by the second verb ? Who is the owner? What is owned? 

Mary has the boat to-day. John owns the boat. 

Ownership and possession involve how many and what parties? 

Transitive acts extend to receivers ; so possessions and 
ownership extend to the things owned and possessed. 
Transitive acts involve two parties : ownership and pos- 
session involve two parties. 

How are transitive acts like ownership and possession ? 

A verb that represents a transitive act, a possession or an 
ownership, is a transitive verb. Ex. — Matthew loves. 
He has a horse. He owns a house. 

What is a transitive verb ? How are verbs. classified with regard 
to that which they represent ? Study the following sentences. What 
do the verbs affirm? 

I am. God is. Bears sleep in winter. Apples are 
sweet. 

How many parties does existence involve? How many parties 

does the state of sleep involve? Does existence or state involve a 

receiver? Can either be transferred ? Intransitive acts involve how 
many parties ? Are intransitive acts transferable? States and exis- 
tences resemble what acts ? How ?• 

A verb that represents an intransitive act a being or 
state, is an intransitive verb. Ex — The horse tr< 
Truth is. The tower leans. 



1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Study the following verbs. Think of the thins 
sents, then tell to what class it belongs, — transitive, or intransitive 

Recite thus, — Have seen represents transitive act, and is- there- 
fore, a transitive verb. Was lost represents a transitive act, and is 
therefore, a transitive verb. 

Be, sat, lighted, have seen, run, found, picked, was .ost, 
shall, played, skipped, was good, hunt, sailed, trembled, 
has obeyed, sleep, tore, embroidered, was seen, rest, broke, 
loved, will love, jump, soiled, owned, shall come, has, 
has had, was brought, were picked, was told, were written, 
was torn, will be killed. 

It will frequently occur that of two verbs having the 
same form, one will be transitive, the other intransitive ; 
one will represent a transitive act, the other an intransi- 
tive act. In deciding whether a verb be transitive or 
intransitive, its form is not the guide, but the real thing 
which the verb represents. Ex. — John staid at home. 
The storm staid the ship. You will succeed. The boy 
succeeds the father. That law breaks the bonds of the 
slave. Morning breaks in the east. The girl skips along. 
The boy skips the stone. 

The word, phrase or proposition used as an objective ele • 
ment, and indicating the receiver of that represented by the 
verb, is the direct object of the verb. 

A verb usually intransitive, may become transitive when it has a 
causative meaning ; when it is followed by an object having a mean- 
ing like the verb ; and in poetic and idiomatic expressions. Ex- 
amples : 

The General maiched his men to the sea ; i. e., caused them to 
march. You should dream pleasant dreams. The man looked hate 
at me. The poor child cried herself sick. 

Some verbs are followed by two elements, of which one is the 
object of the verb, and the other the object of the preposition to, for, 
from, or out of . 

The preposition and its object form the indirect object That 



TENSE. 189 

which is the object of the preposition is the indirect object of the 
verb, 

The indirect object may belong to transitive and to intransitive 
verbs, to adjectives, and sometimes to nouns. It shows that to ox for 
which any thing is, or is done, or that from or out of which anything 
is made or proceeds. Ex. — He spoke to me. He spoke of his Father. 
He gave it to me. I work for Mr. Jones. They made a fire from 
coals. Take it from me. They made a box out of paper. Do me 
the favor. Provide the stranger food. The rule is obvious to all. 
He was anxious for work. That was a bright hour to the child. 

Name the direct and the indirect objects in these examples. 

The following are the chief verbs that have direct and indirect 
objects : 

Buy, provide, send, throw, make, carry, pass, ask, write, 
show, pour, give, order, teach, promise, sell, leave, refuse, 
play, sing, bring, deny, get, tell, lend, do, draw, present. 

Include each of the above verbs in a sentence in such a manner 
that direct and indirect objects will belong to them. 

The teacher made John a scholar. The boy made the 
dog angry. The man made the horse run. 

In the above examples, what are the verbs? What are the sub- 
jects? What are the simple predicates ? What is the objective 
element in the first example? Do you think the boy, John, was 
really made by the teacher ? Through the influence of the teacher, 
he became what? John was made to possess attributes that charac- 
terize what? The noun scholar represents the attributes of whom ? 
Read the words that seem absolutely necessary to the objective 
element. 

The noun John is called the first, or direct object, and the noun 
scholar is called the second, or attributive object. 

Study the second sentence. Did the boy make the dog ? What 
attribute did he cause the dog to possess ? Read the words that 
seem necessary to the objective element. Which of these two words 
is the first, or direct object? Which is the attributive object? 

Study the third sentence. Read the words necessary to the objec- 
tive element. What word represents the attribute that the horse is 
made to have? The noun horse is which object ? The verb run is 
which object? 



I90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

There are a few verbs to which belong direct and attributive ob- 
jects. The two together form a double object, and both are necessary 
to the objective element. 

The attributive object expresses an attributive possessed by that 
represented by the direct object. 

The following verbs take after them double objects: 

Make, create, constitute, name, appoint, compel, know, 
style, elect, constrain, render, call, esteem, consider, 
reckon, think, regard, and some others. 

Attributive objects may be nouns, adjectives and infinitives. 

When the above verbs are in the passive voice, the direct object 
usually becomes the subject, and the attributive object becomes a part 
of the simple predicate. Ex. — They elected him president. He was 
elected president. 

Use the above verbs in sentences in such a manner that double 
objects will belong to them. Let the three classes of attributes be 
represented. 

Analyze the following. Name the parts of speech. Classify the 
verbs and all other verbal words, into regular, or irregular, transitive 
or intransitive. Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives and preposi- 
tions. (The relation of indirect objects should be observed and 
named in parsing prepositions that occur in indirect objective ele- 
ments.) Name the nouns and pronouns that represent the actors, 
receivers, owners, &c* 

Imperial Rome governed the bodies of men, but did 
not extend her empire farther. They say that they have 
bought it. The inquiry was, " Who comes here ? " He 
gave me a promise. I was called a stupid child. The 
sight of so much degredation makes the heart sick. The 
train was commanded by Mr. Cooley. Truly, God is 

*Note. — The authors are aware that it may not be easy to classify all verbs 
as transitive and intransitive according to the preceding definitions. But long 
experience in teaching Grammar has shown us that these definitions make the 
subject more tangible than the usual definition does, viz : A transitive verb is 
one that receives or requires an object to complete its meaning. The line of de- 
marcation between transitive and intransitive verbs is not always clear, no mat- 
ter what definition is chosen. Such being the case, that one seems best that 
being as correct as any, will lead the pupil to think most thoroughly of the 
nature of that which the verb represents. 



TENSE. 19 1 

good. Who will teach me to write. He advised me well. 
In his own land he was esteemed a sage. That fellow 
has many tools that belong to me. Ask me a question, 
and see how well I can answer it. I laughed myself 
hoarse. The boy lead the horse. They commanded the 
soldiers to march. This act constitutes John the chief 
clerk in the House. James was sent from home by the 
daily torments he endured. His desire was to go. Henry 
was anxious for power. The mam's best Coat was made 
from black broadcloth. The orator, John B. Gough, 
spoke of intemperance as the sin that blinds, weakens and 
debases. The master owns many factories. I have had 
a pleasant visit. 

Name the parts of speech in the following. Parse the nouns, pro- 
nouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Classify the verbs as regular 
or irregular, transitive or intransitive. 

" Within thirty miles of Chicago, in a boggy spot near 
the lake shore, grow a couple of species of the Drosera, 
or Sundew. The entire leaf of the Drosera acts like a 
trap, and is covered with little bristles, each tipped with 
a gland, from which oozes a drop of clear liquid that 
glistens like dew, but remains long after the sun has dried 
the moisture from every other vegetable surface. These 
drops are the lures by which unsuspecting insects are 
beguiled to their death. Enticed to sit down to a spread 
of seeming nectar, they approach the deceptive globes, 
which glue their feet and wings with slime, and extraction 
is impossible. 

" The surrounding bristles, relentless instruments of des- 
truction, slowly bend inward until their glutinous tips are 
fastened in the helpless insect's body. The entire leaf 
closes round him, and his end is as certain as if he were 
caught in a spider's web. His juices are sucked, his bones 
are picked, and when in the course of a day or two those 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

bristles relax their murderous grasp and the leaf reopens, 
only his wings and empty pelt are left to tell the tale of 
his fate. 

" He has been chewed, swallowed and digested as liter- 
ally as if an animal with teeth had crushed him between 
its jaws and pressed him down the esophagus. 

"I have opened many of these little Drosera traps and 
found their wretched victims in every stage of consump- 
tion." — S. H. Hubbard. 

" If a man be gracious to strangers, it shows that he is 
a citizen of the world, and his heart no island cut off 
from other islands, but a continent that joins them." — 
Bacon. 

" His life was gentle ; and the elements so mixed in 
him, that nature might stand up and say to all the world, 
'This was a man.' " — Shakespeare. 

Man can be reformed only by showing him a new idea 
that commands his old thoughts. 

" Every promise of the soul has innumerable fulfill- 
ments; each of its joys ripens into a new want." — R. W. 
Emerson* 

* After the above quotations have been thoroughly discussed, each pupil may 
express in his own language the thoughts in each. The last three may be ex- 
panded. 




VOICE. 



John shoots birds. I own an ivory toy. Gold is found 
in California. Dickey drove the horses. The fernery 
was made by the girls. Industry secures success. The 
brave ask, " What is present duty ? " William was a 
farmer. The pony is ill. We have many faults. The 
birds are yellow. English women walk. America was 
discovered by Columbus. Napoleon was defeated. The 
Caucasians possess great beauty. The boys studied Latin. 
Our fields were ploughed. Horses run. The book is 
owned by the teacher. Henry is honest. The young 
have high hopes. Beauty wins notice. 

What is a transitive act? How many parties do transitive acts 
involve? How many parties do intransitive acts involve? What is 
a transitive verb? Define an intransitive verb. Give four examples 
of each. Classify the verbs in the above sentences with regard to that 
which they represent. Classify them with regard to their forms. 
Pronounce the subjects that represent the actors ; thus, — the subject 
John represents the actor. 

Read the subjects that represent the receivers. Read the subjects 
that represent the possessors and the owners. Read the subjects 
that represent neither actors, receivers, owners nor possessors. 

Supply subjects to the following verbs, and tell what each repre- 
sents — whether actor, receiver, possessor, owner, or neither actor, 
receiver, possessor nor owner. 

am sorry. married Albert, 

was hurt. was owned by Smith. 

is running. was defeated at Waterloo. 

came home. will be chosen. 

193 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

will be loved. is standing. 

has an education. sits. 

had been seen. have toys. 

was pretty. sleeps soundly. 

had had a book. killed a fox. 

If a subject for each of the following verbs were supplied, what 
would it represent, — actor, possessor, owner, receiver, or neither ? 

ran swiftly. was learned. 

■ — was beaten. were taught. 

died. own horses. 

was beautiful. loved flowers. 

had a mother. is. 

By seeing the verb, you are able to tell what of the subject? The 
verb has something that shows you what of the subject? 

That which the verb has is its property. That property of 
verbs that shows whether their subjects represent actors, pos ■ 
sessors, owners, receivers, or none of these, is called Voice. 

What is voice? 

There are three voices; the active, the passive and the 
neuter. 

A verb that shows that its subject does not represent the 
agent, owner or possessor, is in the active voice. Ex. — 
Moles destroy gardens. Self-denial ennobles the soul. I 
own my freedom. John has his employer's money. 

A verb that shows that its subject represents the receiver 
of an act, a possession or an ownership, is in the passive 
voice. Ex. — The garden was destroyed by moles. The 
soul is ennobled. Those grounds are owned by Mr. 
Bryant. The farm has been possessed by the wrong party 
for ten years. 

A verb that shows that its subject represents neither actor, 
agent, owner, possessor or receiver, is in the neuter voice. 
Ex. — Helen is lame. The post leans. The leaves were 
beautiful. 

Give sentences containing any form of the following verbs in the 
active voice. 



VOICE, 195 

Love, saw, built, hemmed, read, broke, wrote, shake, 
see, hate, tear, made. 

Give sentences containing the same verbs in the passive voice. 
Observe the verbs that you have written in the passive voice. Name 
the different auxiliaries that you have employed in forming the pas- 
sive. These are all variations of what verb ? 

Some form of the verb to be is necessary in forming the 
passive voice. 

Use the following verbs as auxiliaries in forming the passive voice: 

Are, were, is, am, art, wert, be, seen. 

In the following sentences, tell what each verb shows of its sub- 
ject, and, hence, in what voice it is. 

Temperance and exercise preserve health. Wisdom 
procures esteem. He rests. The apples were gathered. 
Many words darken speech. Thou art my father's friend. 
This is the horse my father imported. Is wisdom dead? 
Horace received the gift. The good are esteemed. The 
winds are blowing. Make my frock. The shingles were 
laid upon the roof. Birds that feed on vegetables, are 
called herbivorous. The child was named Mary Stuart. 

"The triumphs, in our day, of art and science, espe- 
cially in the production of material wealth, have been 
vast beyond all former precedent. In 1760 every species 
of thread was spun on the single wheel ; water and wind 
were the chief inanimate motives; and the horse or the 
dromedary was the fleetest messenger, except when the 
intelligence it bore was occasionally anticipated by a bea- 
con fire on the hill- top, or by a signal from the cross-bar, 
and the pivoted arm of that clumsy expedient which was 
dignified, in those days, by the name telegraph." 

The faculty of saying or writing any thing well is an 
art, just as much as any other; and founded on a science 
as definite as any other. — Ruskin. 

A young man feels in his heart the conviction, that 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

there in the future is waiting for him a great destiny. 
Yet that destiny depends on his courage, and that courage 
on his constancy. — Collyer. 

It is not aspiration, but ambition that is the mother of 
misery in man. Aspiration is a pure upward desire for 
excellence, without side references ; ambition is an in- 
flamed desire to surpass others. — W. R. Alger. 

What is the worst of woes that wait on age ? 

What stamps the wrinkle deeper on the brow? 
To view each loved one blotted from life's pagc s 

And be alone on earth, as I am now. — Byron, 

" A lonely hour is on its way to each, 
• To all ; for death knows no companionship." 

" Now give us lands'where the olives grow," 

Cried the North to the South ; 
" Where the sun with a golden mouth can blow 
Blue bubbles of grapes down a vineyard row," 

Cried the North to the South. — E. B, Browning. 

Parse the above verbs as far as possible, in the following ordei : 

1. Part of speech. 

2. Principal parts. 

3. Regular or irregular. 

4. Transitive or intransitive, 

5. Voice. 

Give the case of the nouns and pronouns in the above. Change, as 
far as possible, the sentences in such a manner as to change the voice 
of each verb. 

Colts love play. Ruskin writes prose-poetry. Fire 
destroyed Chicago. The tailor cuts garments. Alfred 
picks grapes. Mother owns a farm. The child wrote 
a letter. The orator made a speech. The artist painted 
a picture. 

Classify the above verbs according to that which they represent. 
Change the sentences so that the verb will be changed from the active 
to the passive voice. 

The word that was the object, has become what ? What class of 
verbs can have objects ? What class of verbs can have objects that 



VOICE. I97 

may become subjects ? In the passive voice, the word that was the 
object of the verb in the active, has become tohatoi the verb? Then 
what is the only class of verbs that can have the passive voice? 

Only transitive verbs have the passive voice, since they 
alone have objects that may become subjects, since they 
alone can have subjects that represent receivers. 

A few intransitive verbs are made passive when combined with a 
preposition ; in which case, the preposition and verb should be called 
a passive verb. Ex. — Mary was sent for. Father was telegraphed to. 

Write the passive voice of the following verbs : 

Sit, am, run, walk, is. 

Can you do it ? Why? 

Write a sentence containing a regular, transitive verb in the active 
voice ; a complex sentence, containing one regular, intransitive verb 
in the active voice, and one irregular transitive verb in the passive ; 
a compound sentence containing two irregular verbs, — one passive, 
the other active ; a simple sentence, containing a regular, intransi- 
tive, passive verb. Of what voice is each verb in the sentences at the 
beginning of the lesson on voice ? 

Describe the trees in October. If ow many and what kind of verbs 
have you employed in doing it ? 




MODE. 

Home is sweet. The winds blow. The cholera may 
visit the city. Obey me. Battles are fought. Children 
can play. Oh! do go. John, must I write ? Men should 
consult their true interest. I must study. John may call 
William now, Mary would go if she had the means. 
Thomas might stand erect. It might have been so. May 
you have a pleasant journey. He could play well. Women 
ought to dress comfortably. The Mississippi is very long. 
You may buy a ball with your money. If you go, you 
will not see your brother. We should study. Thomas, 
stand erect. You must run. All can help. Though the 
rain fall, I shall go. We must buy umbrellas to-day. 
Come here. The sick woman can sleep now. It may 
snow to-night. May you prosper. I would sing if my 
voice were clear. March. Please give me a penny. He 
might be a free man. 

Study the above sentences. Name the verbs, and state what each 
affirms. Let us think of the manner in which they affirm. Read 
those that affirm in such manner as to show an entreaty. Read those 
that affirm in such manner as to show a permission ; those that 
affirm so as to show command. Read those that show power; those that 
show duty; those that show possibility; those that show necessity; 
those that show inclination, or wish. Read those that affirm in such 
a manner as to show doubt. Read those that show condition. 

Write a sentence containing a verb that affirms in such manner as 
to show certainty ; another, whose verb expresses a command ; anoth- 
er, an entreaty ; another, a permission ; another, a power ; another, a 
duty ; necessity ; desire ; doubt ; condition. 

Tell in what manner the following verbs affirm ; thus, — 

198 



MODE. 



I 99 



Love affirms in such manner as to show certainty, or 
reality. 

Sailors love the sea. The ship was built in i860. You 
can leave the room now. You must study hard if you 
would succeed. March, my men, to victory. Though all 
forsake you, yet will not I. May joy attend you. William 
must be good. The bricks ought to be made of clay. I 
would attempt it, if it would do you good. 

From the preceding examples, you learn that verbs 
affirm in different ways. 

Mode is the manner in which verbs affirm. 
What is mode ? 

There are four modes ; the indicative, the potential, 
the subjunctive, and the imperative. 

A verb that affirms in such manner as to express reality, 
or certainty, is in the indicative mode. Ex. — Beautiful 
birds live in South America. Ice forms in winter. 

The indicative may be used interrogatively. Will you go ? Shall 
I recite ? 

A verb that affirms in such manner as to express per- 
mission, power, possibility, duty, necessity, wish or desire, is 
in the potential mode. Ex. — You may go. Cold can 
kill. He might go. We should speak the truth. We 
must return home. I would go. May joy attend you. 

The auxiliaries of the potential are may, can, must, might, could, 
would, should and ought. 

The potential mode may be used interrogatively ; as, May I go ? 

A verb that is used in such manner as to express a doubt 
or a condition, is in the subjunctive mode. Ex. — 
Though all speak against this project, yet I will prosecute 
it. If the rain fall, the wheat will grow. Had you returned, 
all would be well. Though the king do not command, 
all will prepare for battle. 

In the first of these examples, a doubt is expressed with regard to 
speaking, but there is no condition. In the second example, there 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



growing. Read that part of the sentences that express the doubt ; 
that express the condition. 

A verb that is in a doubt, or in a condition, is in the 
subjunctive mode. 

A verb in the subjunctive mode may also express a wish. Ex. — 
Oh ! had I such a gift as that ! 

If, though, lest, unless, except, whether, that, till, or some other 
word that gives the idea of doubt or condition, generally precedes and 
indicates the subjunctive mode. 

The signs may be omitted, and the subject of the verb be placed 
before the verb, or between the principal and auxiliary verbs. Ex. — 
Were I you, I would do it. Had I gone, I should have seen Mary. 
Would you succeed, devote yourself to business. 

These words may precede verbs that have the form of the indica- 
tive mode, and that are not used to express doubt, condition or wish. 
If I was there, I did not see you. (No doubt that I was there.) If 
he does excel in his studies, he is no more loved. (He does excel, but 
this is not the condition of his being loved.) 

A verb that is used to express a command, or an entreaty, 
is in the imperative mode, Ex. — Run for your life. 
Do help us. 

An imperative verb may express a permission ; as, Play now, since 
you have been good. 

The subject of the imperative verb is usually thou, you, ox ye, and 
generally is understood, 

Give the manner in which the verbs at the beginning of the chap- 
ter affirm, and, hence, of what mode each verb is. 



TENSE OF THE MODES. 



Verbs in the indicative mode have six tenses, — the 
present, the present-perfect, the past, the past-perfect, the 
future, the future-perfect. Ex. — I see. I have seen. I 
saw. I had seen. I shall see. I shall have seen. 



MODE. 20 1 

In this mode only, do the meanings of the tenses correspond with 
the definitions of them. 

In the indicative mode a present act should be represented as 
present. I am studying. A universal truth should be represented as 
present, — Fire melts metals. A habit or custom should be represented 
as present. — He drinks immoderately. He uses profane language. 
For the purpose of producing a more vivid impression, a past or 
future event maybe represented as present. — And now the lion sees 
his prey, and preparing to spring upon it, crouches low. If this law 
be repealed, the villain enters our homes, rods, desecrates, murders, 

A verb in the present-perfect indicative, may represent an act as 
completed in the present. Ex.— Hannah has returned to-day. It 
may represent a continuing act as perfected in the present. Ex. — 
The ocean has rolled for ages. It may represent the effects of a past 
act, &c, as remaining in the present. — Shakespeare has written many 
fine plays. It may represent a past act as present, when only time 
and place remain. Mighty discoveries have been made during this 
century. Many tribes have inhabited these desolate regions. 

Verbs in the potential mode have four tenses; — the pres- 
ent, the present-perfect, the past, the past-perfect. Ex. — 
I may go. I may have gone. I might go. I might have 
gone. 

A verb in the potential mode may represent future acts, &c; as, I 
can sail to-morrow ; but as the auxiliaries of the potential do not 
combine with the auxiliaries of the future, there are no future tenses. 
The tense terms do not properly denote the time represented. 

The signs of the past potential are, might, could, would and 
should. 

What auxiliary is employed to express the idea of perfection, or 
completion? Were this auxiliary united to the auxiliaries of the 
past potential, the signs of what tense would be given ? 

Might have, could have, would have and should have are signs of 
the past-perfect potential. 

The signs of the present potential are may, can, must. 

If the auxiliary have were united to the signs of the present poten- 
tial, the auxiliaries of what tense would be given ? 

May have, can have and must have are signs of the present- 
perfect potential. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The present potential may represent an act, &c, as present or as 
future. — The cars may be coming. We can skate next winter. 

The present-perfect potential may represent an act, &c, as past, 
present or future. — He may have arrived last month. Henry may 
have enlisted to-day. By 1875 the arm may have been cured. 

The past potential may represent an act as past, present or future. 
—Helen would play all day yesterday. They might go to-day or 
next week. 

The imperative mode has one tense, the present. Ex. — 
Go, confess. 

The performance of that which is'commanded or entreated, may 
be in the present or in the future. 

The subjunctive mode has two forms, — the common 
form, and the pure subjunctive form. Ex. — If I am 
here, I must assist you. If I were there, I would help you. 

In the common form, the tense of the verb indicates the time of 
the act, &c, and the number and person of the verb correspond to the 
number and person of the subject. — If he likes grammar, why does 
he not study? If he was there, why did he not speak? If I shall 
have been sick, who will do that work ? 

The common subjunctive does not indicate doubt, nor 
condition, and is frequently called indicative mode with 
subjunctive sign. 

The common subjunctive has six tenses like the indicative. 

In the pure subjunctive form, present doubt or condition is ex- 
pressed by the past form of the verb. — If I were in Boston, I should 
see Mary to-day. Future doubt or condition is expressed by the 
present form of the verb. — If she be at home to-morrow, I shall see 
her. The verb is always plural, even though the subject be singular. 
— Though the girl were ever so guilty, shall we not be kind to her? 

The pure subjunctive has three tenses : The present, 
the past and the past-perfect. — If he be worthy, he shall 
have the position. Were you rich, would you give to 
the poor ? Had you succeeded, renown would be yours. 

When true subjunctive ideas are expressed, i. e., ideas of doubt or 
condition, the pure subjunctive form should be employed. 



MODE. 203 

Whenever a verb has the form peculiar to either of the modes and 
tenses, it is said to be in that mode and tense, even though the idea 
it expresses be not in harmony with those usually expressed by verbs 
in that mode and tense. 

Correct the following : 

If it was me, I would attend school. If the man has 
his mind upon the matter, he will succeed. Though James 
denies it, you must complete the investigation. He was 
studying, when I see him. Fire always melted ice. Unless 
the pupil gives his soul to the work, he will not succeed. 
I have gone yesterday. He may have come to-morrow. 
If he escapes in New York, he will be captured in 
Chicago. Henry studies as if he was an old scholar. If 
I have been at home all summer I should have gone. 



NUMBER AND PERSON OF VERBS. 

I was in town. The man aspires. The boys returned. 
John is happy. He was there. I am a soldier. The 
flower blooms. The girl loves. She lives. 

Name the subjects in the above. What is the number of each ? 
Change each subject to the plural number, but retain the per- 
son. Now read the sentences. Are they agreeable? What prop- 
erty of the subject did you change ? Change the verbs so as to form 
pleasant sentences. When the number of the subject of a sentence 
changes, what else must also be changed ? 

Retain the number of the above subjects, but change the person. 
Are all the sentences agreeable ? Change the verbs so that they will 
correspond to the person of their subjects. Are the sentences pleasant 
now ? From these examples you will learn that the form of the verb 
must suit what properties of its subject ? 



Vee/> up a CONSTANT review of all that has been learned. 

Review. — rage 8. Define a sentence, illustrate. What is a 

thought? What relation have the senses to ideas. 9. What is 

language ? What kind of language is used in books ? What kind 
in conversation ? What kind by the deaf and dumb ? 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Person and number of verbs are the forms that suit the 
person and number of their subjects, hence : 

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

Ex. — We were pleased. I am happy, Boys work. The boy 
works. 

The same form often suits subjects of different number 
and persons. 

I love. You love. We love. They love. 

And hence, to determine the number and person of the 
verb, these properties of the subject must be noted. 

The following verbs are suited to subjects of what number and 
person ? 

Was, am, runs, ran, has, have, were, seen, obey, obeys, sings, sang, 
hears. 

Correct the following, thus : 

Experience, the subject, is singular ; hence, the verb should be 
singular. Have is plural. Corrected — My experience of ten years 
has given me skill. 

My experience of ten years have given me skill. We 
am here. The number of pupils continue to increase. 
The axes was well oiled. Boys and girls attends the 
school. Were the memorandum well kept ? There was 
the flowers a lying on the sand. From Pocahontas 
has descended many of the first families of Virginia. 
He who are respected by all is good to all. Every 
one of the girls play on pianos. Such stories was told 
as seems to interest children. There was John and 
James as earnest as ever. The stratum lie parallel. There 
appears no reasons for this delay. When was you in 
Boston? Can he, who have until now been upright, stoop 
so low ? Enough of beauty and grace remain to capti- 
vate. Neither of the ships were found. Each of his 
actions were dictated by benevolence. On both sides the 
stream bushes is growing. The rent for six years are due. 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 205 

No pupils was admitted but such as was well qualified. 
The phenomena was most wonderful. This practice calls 
for the earnest attention of every man and woman who 
care for the good of society. The brothers, one of whom 
are in New York, are publishers. 

When two or more subjects differing in person or number are 
taken separately, or are connected by or or ner, the verb agrees with 
the subject next it. Ex. — You or I am to teach. The woman or the 
children are at fault. 

When two or more subjects are taken together, that is, joined by a 
copulative conjunction, the verb should be plural. Ex. — Henry and 
Mary play chess. The mother and her children ate at our table. 

Sometimes two or more nouns are taken together to represent one 
whole ; then the verb should be singular. Ex. — Bread and milk is 
wholesome food. " Cleon and I " is an old poem. 

When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are taken sepa- 
rately, the verb should be singular. Ex. — Neither the flower nor the 
fruit is here. Either John or James was called. 

State why the following are incorrect, and correct them. 

The horse and buggy is well matched. Neither wealth 
nor station compensate for honesty and health. Sugar 
and milk were fed to the baby. James or I is to teach. 
Jesus and John was friends. Pudding and molasses con- 
stitute the supper. Either you or I is wrong. Neither 
John nor his father were accused of dishonesty. Up and 
down are the course of fortune. The red, white and blue 
were a sign of hope to our Yankee boys. The trailing 
arbutus, but not the pink, are found in New England 
forests. Mr. Hiram Gage, or his sons, has contracted for 
the building of the bridge. Every man were at his post. 
Each are right. How old is the boys ? Has the little 



Review. — Page 9. What is necessary to clear, strong sentences ? 
Why ? 10. Define a declarative sentence. Illustrate. Define an 
interrogative sentence. Illustrate. Define an exclamatory sentence. 
Illustrate. Define an imperative sentence. Illustrate. 



2o6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

birds flown away ? What is ten years spent in school 
compared to a good education ? Which one of these 
soldiers were wounded ? The hunter, with his dogs, are 
here. Every man's store and house was entered. Every 
store and house were entered. Often in early morning, 
falls heavy showers of rain. 



SHALL AND WILL IN DECLARATIVE SENTENCES. 

Shall is used in the first person to foretell. 

I shall go to town to-morrow. 

Will is used in the first person to express a resolution 
or a promise. 

I will go. I will help you. 

Shall is used in the second and third persons to express 
a promise, a resolution, or a command. 

You shall travel. James shall study. You shall study. 

Will is used in the second and third persons to foretell. 

You will succeed. John will overcome his evil habits. 



SHALL AND WILL IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

Shall is used in the first person to ask for permission 
or for advice. 

Shall I go ? Shall I use blue silk ? 

Shall is used in the second person to ask the one ad- 
dressed to foretell. 

Shall you go to New York ? 

Will, in the second person, inquires for the determina- 
tion of the one addressed. 

Will you go ? Will you dine on fruit ? 

Shall is used in the third person to ask for the deter- 
mination of the one addressed. 

Shall this king tell us when to wink ? 



PERSON AND NUMBER. 207 

Willy in the third person, is used to ask the one ad- 
dressed to foretell. 

Will the snow cover the ground ? Will the ship sail ? 

The emphasis given to shall and will may change their meaning 
somewhat. I may say in a calm manner, and with no particular em- 
phasis — T shall goto town to-morrow. Shall will then foretell. But 
if I say with determined voice, face or gesture — I shall go to town, 
the hearer will conclude that shall denotes resolve. But the forego- 
ing rules regarding shall and will are usually our guides. 

What do shall and will do in the following sentences — resolve, 
or predict ? 

John will be attentive. He shall go to town. I shall 
see mother. You shall obey me. James shall study. 
He will not go. Will the leg do well ? Shall I assist you? 
I will fear no slander. Thou wilt lead me into pleasant 
pastures. I shall fear no evil. How old will he be in 
September? How far shall I walk? When shall I be 
sixteen ? 

Are any of the following incorrect ? Why ? Several are correct 
with one meaning, but incorrect with another. Find and explain 
these. 

I shall go, though I go alone. I will want to join the 
company. Henry shall go, even though all beg him to 
stay. I will drown, no one shall help me. Will we suffer 
such wrong? Will we stand here passive as sheep ? If I 
am so inclined I will go. I give my promise that I shall 
fign the note. Will I be ill, if I eat green fruit ? Whither 
will I flee from this evil ? Why shall he die when help is 
within his grasp ? Will I recite, teacher ? Henry is deter- 
mined that Mary will go. I will be frightened if you 
leave us alone. 



Review. — Page 15. What is the simple subject of a sentence ? 
Illustrate, 17. What is the simple predicate? Illustrate. 18. What 
are the necessary parts of a sentence ? Which of these must always 
be expressed. 21 Define complex subject. Illustrate. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which of the following auxiliaries express power ? ability ? duty ? 
possibility ? inclination ? 

Can I read ? May I go ? Should I study ? I can 
sing. I may return. I would write. I must teach. I 
might walk. I could spell. I would sing were I you. 

Correct the following, and give reasons : 

Can I leave the room ? May I go, if I may get a ride ? 
Should you go if you were I ? Would a child obey his 
mother? Must the flowers come in May? 

Parse the verbs in the following sentences, by first telling what 
each does, and, because of this, to what class it belongs. 

Is published affirms an act ; hence, it is a verb. Its principal 
parts are, — publish, published, publishing, published. It forms its 
past tense and perfect participle by adding <?<a? to the present; hence, it is 
regular. It represents a transitive act ; hence, it is transitive. It 
shows that its subject represents the receiver ; hence, it is passive. 
It represents the act as actual ; hence, it is indicative mode. It rep- 
resents the act as present ; hence, it is present tense. Its subject, 
-baper, is third person, singular number ; hence, the verb is third, sin- 
gular. — A verb should agree with its subject in person and number. 

The Journal is published by Sage & Richardson. 
Shall I go to-day ? You may go if you desire it. Could 
she be so cruel ? The blossoms had fallen from the trees 
before we started on our journey. You must leave this 
pleasant home, and dwell with strangers. Though I meet 
with discouragement, I shall not falter. Columbus was 
pacing the deck on that memorable night. At last, the 
boy slept soundly. Can you hope for health if you neg- 
lect its laws ? You ought to live true lives. Young man, 
you could grow steadily in virtue and wisdom if your soul 
were determined. Throw not away these precious mo- 
ments. I pray you, sir, give me a little food. 

Name the copulative, attributive, auxiliary and principal verbs; 
the participles and infinitives. Give the use of each noun and pro- 



ORDER OF PARSING VERBS, 209 

noun ; and hence, its case. Parse the prepositions. Analyze the 
sentences. 

Parse the verbs in the following sentences by thinking of what 
each verb does, and by speaking its class, properties, &c. Always 
think in the same order.* 



ORDER OF PARSING VERBS. 

i. Part of speech. 5 Voice. 

2. Principal parts. 6, Mode. 

3. Regular or Irregular. 7. Tense. 

4. Transitive or Intransitive. 8. Person and Number. 

9. Rule for person and number. 
Was seen is a verb. Principal parts, see, saw, seeing, seen : 
irregular, transitive, passive, indicative, past : third, singular, to 
agree with its subject, robber. Rule — A verb must agree with its 
subject in number and person. 

The robber was seen as he entered the house. Roger 
Williams established religious liberty in Rhode Island. 
Milton wrote Paradise Lost. Could you not watch 
one hour ? Go, then, ungrateful fellow; let kindly feeling 
take root in your heart before you again come to me. 
Would that the Spring had brought its warmth. Had I 
seen you before this occurred, nothing would have pre- 
vented my warning you against an evil which is the greatest 
curse of which one can think. I loathe that low vice, 
curiosity. Be it a bonfire, or a city's blaze, the multitude 
cry, fire ! 

*Note — The teacher will please insist upon having the reason given, mentally 
or orally, before any classifications are permitted. This will prevent random 
work. 



Review. — Page 22. How should the parts of a sentence be 
arranged ? Give an example in which this rule is violated. 26. De- 
fine complex predicate. Illustrate. 27. What is a subordinate ele- 
ment ? What does the word subordinate mean ? 



2IO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" My conscience hath a thousand several tongues 
And every tongue brings a several tale, 
And every tale condemns me for a villain." 



"Leave her to heaven, 

And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge." 

l * He's armed without, that's innocent within." 

Cunning sin can cover itself with show of truth. I can 
smile, and murder while I smile. Were you my brother, I 
could not love you more. Gather rose-buds while ye may. 
The quantity of heat necessary to raise a pound of water one 
degree, will raise seven hundred and seventy-two pounds 
one foot. Let it not, however, be supposed that we use 
all the heat that is available in our coal. Could I have 
the wealth of millions, I must not relinquish labor. If 
there were able debaters among the members of the asso- 
ciation present, opportunity has not been wanting in which 
to develop their ability. Think, for instance, what a mag- 
nificent subject for discussion was offered by Professor 
Hartshorn. 

Analyze the above sentences both orally and by diagram. 




PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 

The boy, having eaten too many plums, is ill. To 
study is a pleasure. Running makes our cheeks glow. 
I love to walk. Being lame, John walked slowly. To 
be sick is unpleasant. The pony running so fast, is 
Fanny. The pony, running so fast, fell. For boys to lie, 
is a disgrace. Having been lame for ten days, Marion 
was glad to walk again in the garden. Being disturbed 
is not pleasant. Bending the tree too far, he broke it. I 
enjoy riding. Riding is enjoyed by me. The exercise, 
riding, is healthful. The hope of gaining victory cheers 
soldiers. The child, climbing, fell. The child climbing, 
is Fred. The old man toiling so faithfully, was a soldier. 
The old man, toiling so faithfully, grows weary. Being 
well, Jane could go. You must practice the exercise of 
swimming. 

Why are the above simple sentences ? Define a verb. Read all 
the words that represent action, being, state, possession or ownership. 
Are all the words read, verbs ? Why.'' What do the verbal words 
that are net verbs, do? Analyze each sentence, noticing particularly 
what ideas are expressed by the assuming verbal words. Pronounce 
each assuming verbal word and state how it is used, i. e., as subject, 
object, adjective, or adverb. In Part First, what names wei*e given 
to assuming verbal words? Alike in most particulars, they are unlike 
in what ? Name the participles in the above. Name the infinitives. 

Participles and Infinitives arc assuming verbal words. 
They may be used as nouns, as adjectives, and as adverbs. 



Review. — Page 28. What is it to analyze a sentence ? 33. How 
is a simple sentence arranged in a diagram ? 34. Define noun. Il- 
lustrate, 36. What is a pronoun ? Illustrate, 38. What is an 
adjective element ? Illustrate. 42. What is an adjective? 

211 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The infinitive is usually accompanied by what word ? 

To is called the sign of the infinitive. After the active 
verbs, bid, make, need, let, feel, and dare; after let in the 
passive, and after some other words, to is omitted. 

Study carefully the punctuation of sentences containing parti- 
ciples. 

If the participial element follow its subject and be used as an 
essential identifier, how many commas are employed? If it follow 
its subject and be not an essential identifier, but thrown in to give an 
additional idea, howmany commas areused? Where? If the participial 
element be used adverbially, and placed before the element it limits, 
what mark follows it ? What mark precedes it, if the participial 
element be preceded by other elements? 

In the following examples, give the use, or construction, of each 
participle and infinitive} and tell of what thing it assumes. Thus, — 
Speaking is a participle that assumes action of the real man, It be- 
longs to injured, which it limits by showing cause, and, hence, has 
the construction of an adverb. 

The man, speaking so violently, injured his voice. The 
man speaking so violently, is a politician. Old Dime, 
seeing his master go to town without him, began to bark 
and howl. That child playing, is Willie. The hills, en- 
circling the town, are called bluffs. The desire to study 
forced me to go. Harry obeys to gain praise. Lizzie 
obeys to be true. 

The word that represents that of which a participle or an 
infinitive assumes, is its assumed subject. 

What are the assumed subjects of the above paiticiples and infin- 
itives? Why ? 

Recite thus, — Alan represents that of which the action, speaking, 
is assumed ; hence, it is the assumed subject of the participle, 
speaking. 

Having walked all day, John was weary. The brook, 
running, makes sweet music. Running horses create a 
fright. Having been frozen, the apples were not gath- 
ered. Having loved faithfully, the mother was loved. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 213 

The boy being whipped, is Charles. The trees bearing 
red apples, are young. The roof, having been mended, 
did not leak. The horse being abused, rebels. The girl 
sitting by the window, is Annie. 

To what class of assuming words do those in the above sentences 
belong ? What are their assumed subjects? Read those that repre- 
sent the acts, &c, as present. Read those that represent the acts, &c, 
as completed, or perfected. 

A participle that represents an act, &c, as present, is a 
present participle. 

Ex. — The gentlemen now being educated, have great advantages. 
The falling rain is music to our ears. 

A participle that represents an act, &*c, as completed, or 
perfected, is a perfect participle. 

Ex. — The lecture having been read, was laid one side. The 
nurse having stilled the child, will return to the mother. 

There are two classes of infinitives, — the present and 
the perfect. 

The present infinitive may represent an act, &c, with- 
out reference to time. 

Ex. — To work is to enjoy. 

It may represent it as present. 

Ex. — The pupils seem to learn. 

And it may represent it as future. 

Ex. — Man never is, but always to be blest. 

The perfect infinitive represents an act, &c, as per- 
fected. 

Ex. — The cars seem to have been broken. He appeared to have 
fallen from his horse. 



Review. — Page 42. By example explain how adjectives limit the 
application of nouns. How do adjectives differ from adjective ele- 
ments ? How resemble them ? Name eighteen or mcu-e ideas ex- 
pressed by adjectives. Are adjectives adjective elements? 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Have is the auxiliary of the perfect infinitive. 

How many voices have verbs? What is voice? Define each 
voice. Study the participles and infinitives in this chapter. Read 
those that show that their assumed subjects represent the actors ; 
the possessors ; the owners. Those that show that their assumed 
subjects represent the receivers of acts, possession or ownership. 
Those that show that their assumed subjects represent neither actors, 
possessors, owners, nor receivers. From these examples, you may 
infer that participles and infinitives have what property ? How many 
voices have they ? 

Participles and infinitives that show that their assumed 
subjects represent the actors, possessors, or owners, are 
in the active voice. 

Ex. — The pupil having studied, deserves success. I love to run. 
To obey was his aim. 

Participles and infinitives that show that their assumed 
subjects represent receivers, are in the passive voice. 

Ex. — The pail having been filled, was put in the cellar,, To be 
scorned is the lot of some. 

Participles and infinitives that show that their assumed 
subjects represent neither actors, possessors, owners, nor 
receivers, are in the neuter voice. 

Ex. — The trees, being young, could not endure the drouth. To 
be a Christian was once a disgrace. 

Classify the following participles and infinitives, into present or 
perfect ; active or passive. Give the reasons. Classify all the parti- 
ciples anc 1 infinitiveb in this chapter. 

I am sorry to hear it. Writing grows tiresome. He 
intended to go. The event is to be deplored. Mary 
seems to have lost all. Being helped too frequently 
weakens. He is fond of being praised. Those flowers, 
having bloomed, were plucked. Henry, having been 
reproved, resolved to mend his ways. 

With what letters do all the present active and the present neuter 
participles end ? What auxiliary is employed in the passive voice ? 
What one in the perfect participle ? What two in the perfect passive ? 





Present. 


Active. 


Loving, 


Passive. 


Being loved, 


Neuter. 


Being, 


Active. 


Observing, 


Passive. 


Being observed, 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 215 

lug is the ending of present active and of neuter par- 
ticiples. 

Being and been are the auxiliaries of the passive. 
Having is the auxiliary of the perfect participle. 
Having been is the auxiliary of the perfect passive. 

Perfect. 
Having loved ; 
Having been loved. 
Having been. 
Having observed, 
Having been observed. 
What verbs can have passive voice ? Participles and infinitives, 
to admit of passive voice, must be derived from what kind of verbs ? 
Give the participles of the following verbs : 

Am, saw, grow, lose, run, love, lie, sit, loose, crow, see, 
lay, set, dye, blossom, recite, obey, do, die, shut, come, 
find, lead, fall, sew, hear, ride, steal, rush, draw, lay. 
Participles used as nouns may be . 
Subjects of verbs, Ex. — Running strengthens. 

Objects of verbs, Ex. — I dislike lacing. 

Objects of prepositions, Ex. — He improved by reading. 
Predicate nominative, Ex. — The work is sewing. 
As identifier of a noun, Ex. — The exercise, rowing, is pleasant. 

Participles used as adverbs may express 
Cause. Ex. — Desiring to learn, she studies. 

Condition, Ex. — Working hard, you may succeed. 

Manner, Ex. — The horse came galloping. 

Time, Ex. — Having crossed the stream,we climbed the bluff. 

Accompaniment, Ex. — She sat by the door, sewing. 
Degree, Ex, — The freezing cold rain fell. 

Means, Ex. — Using the life-boats, our lives were saved. 



Review. — Page 42. Are adjective elements adjectives ? 45. What 
are verbs ? When are words said to affirm ? Illustrate. When are 
words said to assume ? Illustrate. 47. What do verbs affirm? 
48. Define participles. What do participles assume? 



2i6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Participles may be — ■ 

Combined with the auxiliary be to form the passive voice. 
Ex. — We were heai'd* He will be seen. 

Combined with the auxiliary have to form the perfect 
tenses. 

Ex. — Henry had fought. They have gone. 

Combined with auxiliary be to express continuance. 
Ex. — The brook is flowing. They were singing. 
When used in either of these ways, the participle and auxiliary 
form a verb. 

A participle may be used to form the attributive object 
of a verb. 

Ex. — We considered him improving. We thought him learning. 
When the verb, in such a case, becomes passive, the participle forms 
a part of the simple predicate. Ex. — He was considered improving. 

Infinitives used as nouns may be — 
Subjects of verbs, Ex. — To steal is dishonest. 

Objects of verbs, Ex. — I dislike to see cruelty. 

Objects of prepositions, Ex. — He is about to go. 

Objects of adjectives, Ex. — They are afraid to speal\ 

Predicate nominative, Ex. — My duty is to be true. 

Infinitives used as adjectives may express — 
Cause, Ex. — I weep to know of this sorrow. 

Manner, Ex. — The horse trotted to please me. 

Purpose, Ex. — Henry went to hear the French Band. 

Future event, Ex. — The General went to return no more. 

Supplement of comparison, Ex. — Sweet enough to make cider. 

Infinitives may be combined with all auxiliaries except 
have and be. 

I can walk. I might walk. I shall walk. When so used, the in- 
finitive and auxiliary form a verb. 

Infinitives may be used to form the attributive object 
of a verb 

Ex. — I made him (to) study* Professor appointed John to callthe roll. 
When the verb, in such a case, becomes passive, the infinitive forms 



PART1CIPALS AND INFINITIVES. 217 

a part of the simple predicate. He was made to study* John was 
appointed to call the roll. 

Participles and infinitives that have the construction of 
nouns, that is, have case, may be parsed as nouns. Since 
they are verbal words, objective and adverbial elements 
belong to them. 

Ex. — We appreciate drawing. Knitting is a work girls and boys 
can do, To see is to believe. To convince him is impossible. Mrs, 
Hurlburt enjoys painting pictures, 

. Participles are parsed in the following way: 
The hunter, seeing the bear, fired at him. 
Seeing is an assuming verbal word, which does not begin with to ; 
hence, it is a participle. It is derived from the irregular, transitive 
verb, see. The participles are, present active, seeing ; present pas- 
sive, being seen ; perfect active, having seen ; perfect passive, having 
been seen. It represents the act as present ; hence, it is a present 
participle. It assumes action of a hunter ; hence, the noun, hunter, 
is its subject. It shows that its subject is an actor ; hence, it is active, 
It tells the time or cause of the firing ; hence, it belongs to the verb, 
fired, and is used adverbially. Rule — Participles belong to the words 
they limit. 

The song now being sung, was composed by James 
Hubbard. 

Being sung is an assuming verbal word not beginning with to, 
expressed or understood ; hence, it is a participle. It is derived from 
the irregular, transitive verb, sing. The participles are — present 
active, singing j present passive, being sung ; perfect active, having 
sung ; perfect passive, having been sung. It represents the act as 
present ; hence, it is present. It assumes the reception of the act, 
singing, by the song hence the noun, song, is its subject. It shows 
that its subject is the receiver ; hence, it is passive. It limits song 
by showing the reception of an act ; hence, it belongs to this noun. 
Rule. 



Review. — Page 51. Define infinitives. Illustrate. What do 
infinitives assume ? In what do infinitives and participles differ? 
In what are infinitives and participles alike ? Illustrate the likeness. 
53. Define copula. What does a copula do ? 



2iS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

In the same way, parse the participles of the following : 
The bird swinging in his narrow cage, must long for 
freedom. The sun warms my blood, shining so steadily. 
Those letters written by Louise Phelps, should make us 
examine our own habits. We thought him playing. The 
mountain brook goes dancing to the sea. The soldier, 
having been wounded, was sent North. Being flattered, 
Henry lost many manly qualities. I intend writing. The 
duty of listening, John well understood. Dreading to 
meet the General's close questions, the poor fellow de- 
serted. We hear the water tumbling. Running along 
the walk, I tripped and fell. Dinner being cooked, we 
rested. My old friend left, crying. We considered him 
dying.* 

Participles frequently have the form of one class, but the meaning 
of another. Ex. — The child, being reproved, has studied well during 
the whole year. The meaning is, the child having been reproved, 
has studied well during the whole year. The form of the participle 
is present passive, the meaning is perfect passive. In parsing parti- 
ples of this kind, this peculiarity should be mentioned. f 

The pupil, having been encouraged, renewed his efforts. 

Having been encouraged is a participle from the regular, transitive 
verb, encouraged. 

The participles are — encouraging, being encouraged, having en- 
couraged, having been encouraged. It is perfect passive ; refers to 
its assumed subject, pupil, but belongs to renewed, which it limits by 
denoting cause of renewal. Rule. — Participles belong to the words 
that they limit. 

Parse the participles in the following sentences according to the 
model above, and in the order given below : 

*Note.— Sometimes it will be best to supply auxiliaries that are understood, 
and then to parse the participles. Ex — The boy, abused in that manner, ran 
away. The boy, having been abused in that manner, ran away. 

1'Note. — After pupils have learned to parse accurately by the lengthy method. 
they should use the abhreviated form, in which part of the work is mental and 
part oral. Rapidity should be insisted upon before the subject is dropped. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES, 2ig 

Order of parsing participles. 

i. Part of speech. 4. Classification. 

2. From what verb. 5. Assumed subject. 

3. Participles. 6. Construction. 

7. Rule. 

The boys, having learned their lessons, felt relieved. 
The branch swaying in the wind, has autumnal colors. 
Fishing is the chief occupation of the Newfoundlanders. 
Brutus, having been defeated in battle, fell upon his 
sword. The cars go rattling on their way. I have seen 
the trees slivered by the wind. Peace being secured, we 
may return to our farms and workshops. The lark flies 
singing through the air. Who would fall flying from the 
enemy? The hope of seeing his mother cheered him. 

Infinitives are parsed in the following way : 

William came to see the city. 

See is an assuming verbal word, preceded by to ; hence, it 
is an infinitive. The principal parts are, see, saw, seeing, seen. It 
does not form its past tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present ; hence, it is irregular. It represents a transitive act ; 
hence, it is transitive. It assumes action of the boy William ; hence, 
the noun William is its subject. It shows that its subject represents 
an actor ; hence, it is in the active voice. It represents the act as 
present ; hence, is present. It tells the purpose of coming ; hence, 
belongs to the verb came, and is used adverbially. Rule. — Infini- 
tives belong to the words they limit. 

Margaret does not like to be criticised. 

Be criticised is an assuming verbal word, preceded by to; 
hence, it is an infinitive. The principal parts are, — criticise, criti- 
cised, criticising, criticised. It forms its past tense and perfect par- 



Review.— Page 54 Predicate adjectives belong to what ? 55. In 
every sentence what is affirmed of an object ? What is the attribute 
of the predicate ? Illustrate. When do attribute and copula to- 
gether form a verb? Illustrate. 5G. Define attributive verb. Illustrate. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ticiple by the addition of ed to the present ; hence, it is regular. It 
represents a transitive act ; hence, it is transitive. It shows that its 
subject represents the receiver ; hence, it is passive voice. It as- 
sumes the reception of an act by Margaret ; hence, Margaret is its 
subject. It represents the act as present , hence, it is present. It is 
used as the object of the verb like ; and hence, is in the objective 
case. Rule. — The object of a verb is in the objective case.' 

Parse the infinitives of the following : 

The horse to ride is the bay, I came to bury Caesar, 
not to praise him. Moses went to the mountain to re- 
ceive the commandments. Henry went to please his sis- 
ter. To write well requires care. His duty is to go. 
The brave fellow comes to climb to the top-most place, 
and there to watch the sea. It is built to suit his fastidious 
taste. To watch the robins feed their young, was a joy 
to the great poet. The master taught the boy to draw.* 

My duty is to wash the vases. 

To wash is an infinitive. Principal parts are, — wash, washed, 
washing, washed ; regular, transitive, active, present ; its assumed 
subject is my duty is. It is used like a noun, with the copula is to 
form the simple predicate, and therefore, is in the nominative case. 
An infinitive used as a predicate noun is in the nominitive case. 

Follow the order given below in parsing the infinitives in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

i. Part of speech. 5. Voice. 

2. Principal parts. 6. Present or perfect. 

3. Regular or irregular. 7, Subject. 

4. Transitive or intransitive. 8. Construction. 

9. Rule. 

It is better to suffer than to do wrong. The boy went 

down to rise no more. Now my boat sails to suit me. 

Ten thousand went to hear the Jubilee singers. John is 

anxious to go. His desire to go caused him to hurry. 

*Note.— An abbreviated form for parsing should be used after the pupils are 
familiar with the lengthy one given above. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 221 

Our aim should be to improve each day. Hateful task ! 
to drive the poor slave to his work. The boy learned to 
paint to assist his mother. The wild bird tried to escape. 
To love our friends is natural. 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the participles and infin- 
itives in the abbreviated way. 

He, being a child, was not murdered. The shining 
stars are beautiful. Hannah loves to spin. She sits in 
the door reading. Our amusement is dancing. Having 
been defeated many times, he went away to lament. The 
hills standing about the city, are very beautiful. The 
man given to drink, is a slave. One wave rises, and hav- 
ing reached its destined limit, is succeeded by another. 
Having found their friend, they went home. You will 
find her to be brave and true. It is a disgrace to be 
late. I love to wander over the meadows. Will you be 
so kind as to assist me ? Johnson declared wit to con- 
sist in finding out resemblances. I have brought a book 
for you to read. She is too young to endure such con- 
stant exertion. They lay hidden by the hedge, till the 
foe went past. Truth crushed to earth, will rise again. 
There are many men, deserving reward, who receive 
none. The savage, being greatly frightened by the sight 
of fire-arms, surrendered. 

You have before learned that the objects of participles 
and infinitives are in the objective case. 

Ex. — Printing cards is his business. The boys like to study med- 
icine. 



Review. — Page 58. Define proposition. Illustrate. Define sim- 
ple sentence. Illustrate. 61. Define adverbial elements. Illustrate. 
Give a sentence containing an adverbial proposition ; one containing 
an adverbial phrase. What ideas do adverbial elements express ? 



222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

You have learned that nouns and pronouns used with 
copulas to form simple predicates, are in the nominative 
case; that is, in the same case as the subjects of the verbs. 

Ex. — James is a student. It is he. 

As copulative verbs are used to affirm attributes of 
those things that their subjects represent, so participles 
and infinitives are used to assume attributes of those 
things that their subjects represent. 

Ex. — The bird, being hungry, comes near the house. William's 
desire was to be upright. Horace dislikes being a peddler. Victoria 
hopes to become &.physiciait. The fellow, seeming honest, was trust- 
ed. We dread to become friendless. 

Nouns and pronouns used with copulative participles 
or with infinitives to form simple assumptions, are in the 
same case as the subjects of the participle or the infini- 
tive. 

Ex. — John, being a mason, soon found work. I saw him becom- 
ing a good man. We know the man, seeming a lion, is truly a lamb. 
John wished to become an engineer. The father intended John to 
become a musician.* 

When, however, the subjects are in the possessive case, 
or are wholly dropped from the sentences, the nouns or 
pronouns used with the participles and the infinitives to 
complete the assumption, are in the nominative absolute. 

Ex. — I have heard of her being a botanist. We all knew of his 
being a zillain. To be a scholar requires time and study. Being a 
soldier implies hardship. 

The noun or pronoun used as subject of a participle, 
and having no relation to the other parts of the sentence, 
is in the nominative absolute. 

Ex. — John being away, we did not remain. The boat coming in 
sight, the crowd gave a shout. 

*Note.— The teacher will see the necessity of skill in finding the subjects of 
participles and the infinitives. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 223 

Copulative participles and infinitives, and participles 
whose subjects are nominative absolute, require their at- 
tributive words and their subjects to form the simple ele- 
ments of which these verbal words are part. 

Ex. — I dislike being lame. Being, the participle, is used with 
lame, the attribute, to form the simple object of dislike. 

He working, the family were saved. 

Working, with its subject he, forms the simple adverbial element 
cf manner, telling how the saving was accomplished. 

An adjective used with a participle or an infinitive, to 
form the simple assumption, belongs to the subject of the 
participle or of the infinitive. 

In the sentences in the preceeding chapter, give the ca-^e of each 
noun and pronoun. 

Correct the following. State in what the errors consist. 

I knew the man to be he. Being him is not being 
much. I was not aware of his being him. It is me. It 
was him. I know the boy is him. I believe John to be 
he. 

Punctuate the following : 

Having been driven from home he sought shelter in an 
old church securely hidden among the trees. The child 
being rocked fell asleep. The child being rocked is my 
sister. The picture hanging against the wall is Bierstadt's 
Light and Shadow. I love so to speak all brave souls 
who fighting battles daily never give up. Obscure and 
feeble sentences are generally if not always the result of 
obscure and feeble thought. We the oldest proudest 
most cultivated nation are so to speak on the brink of a 

Review. — Page 62. Define in full, adverbs. Illustrate fully. 
64. How should adverbial elements be arranged ? Illustrate the 
rule. Illustrate its violation. 68. Which is the principal proposition 
of a sentence ? Define a complex sentence. Illustrate. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

precipice from which only our own exertions can deliver 
us. Earth and sea night and day sunshine and cloud 
show the wisdom of God. Who let me ask can tell of 
the heights and depths the grandeur and beauty of one 
human soul. It is the thinker after all who moves the 
world. The world secure in its sense of immortality may 
smile at danger. Oh innocence come back oh give me 
the glad heart of boyhood. 

Punctuate the following sentences in different ways, so as to make 
each express different ideas. 

The boy says the paper was lost in the woods. He 
goes to drink his wife's heart a wounded thing is still 
more crushed by the last weight. Why will you go. 
Will you go now. Paul was an energetic man in deceiv- 
ing the Jews he was never engaged. My brothers Henry 
and Joseph will befriend you. They came marching 
after the captain puffing and blowing the engines roused 
the people. 

What do you think 

I'll shave you for nothing and give you a drink. 

Every lady in this land 
Has twenty nails upon each hand 
Five and twenty on hands and feet 
And this is true without deceit, 

For his own pleasure he gave the boys two books each 
containing two leaves each printed in ornamental letters. 



Do not use participles when infinitives or nouns will be 
more agreeable. 

Which of the following do you like better? 
Her being lame prevented Her lameness prevented 

her. her. 

I dislike to go. I don't like going. 

Do you expect John com- Do you expect John to come 

ing soon ? soon ? 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 225 

Being good secures esteem. Goodnes-s secures esteem. 

He hopes traveling. He hopes to travel. 

Being truthful is his desire. To be truthful is his desire. 

He did not wait the Indians He did not wait to be shot 

shooting him. by the Indians. 

His being away was the His absence v/as the cause 

cause of my blundering. of my blunder. 

Do not, in one sentence, use both participles and in- 
finitives that have the same construction. 

Correct the following : 

To read, to study, and singing were his chief delights. 
He came expecting to hunt and fish ; but he did not ex- 
pect dressing his game. To watch is his duty ; and serv- 
ing his pleasure. Fitting, making, mending, these are her 
cares ; to plow, to sow, to reap, those are his. To claim 
friendship and acting an enemy, shows a mean spirit. I 
like writing better than to to study or recite. Saying you 
were "cut " is the same as to say you were intentionally 
overlooked. 

The perfect infinitive represents something as com- 
pleted at the time indicated by the verb. 

Ex. — He is thought to have been drowned last year. We all be- 
lieve the box to have been opened by the wrong party. 

The present infinitive represents something as present 
or as future at the time indicated by the verb. 

Ex. — I hope to go. I intended to write. Ellen expects to serve her 
friends. 



Review. — Page 70. Give the order of analyzing complex sen- 
tences. 71. Give the rule for punctuating an adjective proposition 
used as an essential identifier. Illustrate. Give the rule for punctu- 
ating an adjective proposition introduced to give an additional, but 
not an essential, idea. Illustrate. 



2 26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Correct the following and show why each is wrong : 

We were not able to have bought so expensive an in- 
strument. We supposed the General to have been dead at 
that time. Both considered the fool to be answered ac- 
cording to his folly. I propose to have had the door 
hung. I invited several of my friends to lave met me 
here, Washington is supposed to be as pure a president 
as Lincoln. It is your duty to have taught him. If I 
wished him to come I would have written him. 

The auxiliaries, do, have, may, can, must, will and shall, 
usually harmonize best with one another and with the 
present tense. 

Ex. — I must go, but you can stay. If I stay you will not be 
pleased. 

The auxiliaries, did, had, might, could, would and 
should, usually harmonize best with one another and 
with the past tense. 

Ex. — I succeeded and you might have done so. Could you the 
victory win, then might my heart have peace.* 

Correct the following : 

If he sell his house, he would have tOvbuy him anoth- 
er. Where can I go that I might have friends. Had 
James a book be must study it. We must go now lest 
the storm should overtake us. I am afraid I could not 
please you. William was desirous that he may go. Im- 
prisonment was threatened to the first man who violated 
the law. 

Do not use the perfect participle when a verb in the 
past tense should be used ; and never use auxiliaries with 
verbs in the past tense. 

Why are the following wrong ? Correct them. 

I have saw the sun sitting behind the western hills. 

*Note. — There are exceptions to the latter rule. 



PARTICIPLES AND INFINITIVES. 22y 

The boys done it just for nothing but sport. Mary had 
broke her arm before the botanist seen the danger. The 
trees were shook violent by the wind when it had went 
more than five miles from the place where it was first 
saw. Harry knew he had drawed good but he was too 
modest to show it. That careless girl had tore her dress 
all to. tatters and she has wore it only but a week ; I 
never seen her like on clothes. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, prepositions, parti- 
ciples and infinitives in the following : 

The second mistake upon the subject of happiness is, 
that it comes from riches. Circling round the out- 
er walls of the city, he espied a weak point upon 
which he made an attack, I knew Christina to be a no- 
ble woman. To be or not to be, is the question for us 
to decide. The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was 
ambitious. We are in the vigor of youth, The hope of 
a reward stimulates many. The gentleman's fame as an 
artist, was the cause of his being appointed by the Gov- 
enor. The old man has been standing by the sea, the 
wind drifting his tattered garments, and his white hair 
exposed to the merciless elements. By consulting the 
best judges, he decided how to act. 

"Lochiel, Lochiel, beware of the day, 
When the Low-lands shall meet thee in battle array." 

Now, if ye be men, must ye come on to the fight. 

"Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven's first born !" 

"Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 
Confusion on thy banners wait." 



Review. — Page 71. Give the rule for punctuating short and 
closely connected adverbial [propositions. Illustrate. Give the rule 
for punctuating adverbial propositions not short nor loosely con- 
nected. Illustrate. 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



"Our lives are rivers, gliding free, 
To that unfathomed, boundless sea, 
The silent grave ! 
Thither all earthly pomp and boast 
Roll, to be swallowed up and lost 
In one dark wave." 

"Thither the mighty torrents stray. 
Thither the brook pursues its way, 
And tinkling rill. 
There all are equal ; side by side 
The poor man and the son of pride 
Lie calm and still." 

— Translation by H. IV, LongfelloiVz 

"She was a phantom of delight 
When first she gleamed upon my sight • 
A lovely apparition, sent 
To be a moment's ornament ; 
Her eyes were stars of twilight fair ; 
Like twilights, too. her dusky hair ; 
But all things else about her drawn 
From May-time and the cheerful dawn ; 
A dancing shape, an image gay, 
To haunt, to startle, and waylay." 

"I saw her upon nearer view, 
A spirit, yet a woman too ! 
Her household motions light and free, 
And steps of virgin liberty; 
A countenance in which did meet 
Sweet records, promises as sweet : 
A creature not too bright or good 
For human nature's daily food, 
For transient sorrows, simple wiles, 
Praise, blame, love, kisses, tears and smiles. 

"And now I see with eyes serene 
The very pulse of the machine ; 
A being breathing thoughtful breath, 
A traveler between life and death ; 
The reason firm, the temperate will, 
Endurance, foresight, strength and skill ; 
A perfect woman, nobly planned 
To warn, to comfort, and command ; 
And yet a spirit still, and bright 
With something of an angel-light. ' 

— IV. Wordsworth. 



CONJUGATION. 

The conjugation of a verbal word is the full and 
regular arrangement of its modes, tenses, voice, numbers 
and persons. 

A synopsis is an arrangement of its modes, tenses and 
voices, in a single number and person. 

A verbal word is conjugated by changing the form of 
the word, and by using auxiliaries. 

The principal parts of a verbal word are the present 
indicative, the past indicative, the present participle, and the 
perfect participle. 

These are called principal parts, because, from them, 
the various modes, tenses and voices are formed. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB BE. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. Present Participle. Perfect Participle. 

Be or am, was, being, been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

First Person — I am, 1. We are, 

Second Person — You are, 2. You are, 

Third Person — He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 



Review. — Page 71. Give rule for punctuating paranthetical 
and loosely connected adverbial elements. Illustrate. 74. Define 
objective elements. 75. To what parts of speech may they belong ? 
Illustrate. Are objective elements principal or subordinate ? Why? 

229 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


I have been, 1. 
You have been, 2. 
He has been. 3. 


We have been, 
You have been, 
They have been, 


1. 

2. 
3* 


Past Tense. 
I wasj 
You were, 
He was. 


1. We were, 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Past-Perfect Tense. 

I had been, 1. 

You had been, 2. 

He had been. 3. 

Future Tense. 


We had been, 
You had been, 
They had been. 



Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. You will be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be. 3. They will be. 

Promise, threat, or determination. 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. You shall be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Simple futurity ; foretelling. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. You will have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been. 8. They will have beem 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Pure subjunctive form. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be. 3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were, Were I, 1. If we were, Were we, 

2. If you were, Were you, 2. If you were, Were you, 

3. If he were, Were he. 3. If they were, Were they. 



CONJUGATION. 231 

Past-Perfect Tenses 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been. 3, If they had been. 

Or thus :— 

1. Had I been, 1. Had we been, 

2. Had you been, 2. Had you been, 

3. Had he been. 3. Had they been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Common form. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I am, 1. If we are, 

2. If you are, 2. If you are, 

3. If he is. 3. If they are. 
Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have been, 1. If we have been, 

2. If you have been, 2. If you have been, 

3. If he has been. 3. If they have been. 
Past Tense. 

1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 
r ect Tense. 

1. If we had been, 

2. If you had been, 

3. If they had been, 
Tense^ 

1. If we shall, or will be, 

2. If you will, or shall be, 

3. If they will, or shall be 

Review. — Page 80. When is there a relation between objects ? 
81. What are prepositions? Why is there need of prepositions ? 
83. What do you mean by the object of a preposition ? What rela- 
tions do prepositions represent ? 





1. If I was, 

2. If you were, 
2. If he was. 




Past-Pc 




1. If I had been, 

2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been. 




Futur 


1. 

2, 
3, 


If I shall, or will be, 
If you will, or shall be, 
, If he will, or shall be. 



232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 

1. If I shall, or will have been. 1. If we shall, or will have been, 

2. If you will, or shall have been, 2. If you will, or shall have been, 

3. If he will, or shall have been. 3. If they will, or shall have been, 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 
In the same way use the auxiliaries can and must. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. You may have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 
In the same way use the auxiliaries can have and must have. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 
In the same way use the auxiliaries could, would and should. 

Past-Perfect Tense 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. You might have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. 

In the same way use the auxiliaries cotild have, zvould have and 
should have. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Presejit Tense. 
2. Be you, Do you be. 2. Be you, Do you be. 

Present. Peifect. 

Infinitives. — To be, To have been. 

Participles. — Being, Been. 



CONJUGATION. 233 

Synopsis of the verb to be with thou. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — Thou art. 

Present- Perfect Tense — Thou hast been. 

Past Tense — Thou wast, or wert. 

Past-Perfect Tense — Thou hadst been. 

Future Tense — Thoushalt, or wilt be, 

Future-Perfect Tense — Thou shalt, or wilt have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — If thou be. 

Past Tense — If thou wert ; or, wert thou. 

Past-Perfect Tense — If thou hadst been ; or, hadst thou been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense — Thou mayst, canst, or must be. 
Present-Perfect Tense — Thou mayst, canst, or must have been. 
Past Tense — Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst be. 
Past-Perfect Tense — Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst 
have been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — Be thou ; or, do thou be. 

The synopsis of to be, first person, singular number. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Dec la ra five. In terroga tive. 

Present Tense, lam, Ami? 

Present-Perfect Tense, I have been, Plave I been? 

Past Tense, I was, Was I? 

Past-Perfect Tense, I had been, Had I been 

Future Tense, I shall be. Shall I be? 

Future-Perfect Tense, I shall have been, Shall I have been? 

Review. — Page 89. Define compound sentence. Illustrate. 
90. Give the order of analyzing compound sentences. 91. What are 
co-ordinate elements? Give a sentence containing co-ordinate nouns ; 
another containing co-ordinate verbs. 



234 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — If I be. 

Past Tense — If I were. 

Past Perfect Tense— If I had been, 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Declarative. Interrogative. 

Present Tense, I may be, May I be ? 

Present-Perfect Tense, I may have been, May I have been? 

Past Tense, I might be, Might I be ? 

Past-Perfect Tense, I might have been, Might I have been? 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Found only in second person. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present Tense — To be. Present-Perfect — To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect — Being. 

Perfect — Been, or having been. 

Give the synopsis of to be, in the indicative, — second person singu- 
lar ; second person plural ; first person plural; third person plural; 
potential, — third person singular , second person plural ; third per- 
son plural ; subjunctive, — second person singular ; second person 
plural • third person plural ; first person plural. 

In what mode and tense is the verb in each of the following? 

He is. I am. You were. He has been. If I were. 
Thou wast. Were he. You can be. We were. I had 
been. He might be. They might have been. To have 
been. If you are. They were. If he be. He will have 
been. Thou art. You might be. I must have been. 
She had been. To be. You will be. 



CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB SEE. 
PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past, Present Participle Perfect Participle. 

See, Saw, Seeing, Seen, 



CONJUGATION. 



■35 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I see, 

2. You see, 

3. He sees. 



Plural, 

1. We see, 

2. You see, 

3. They see.* 



Emphatic form. 
Do, combined with the present infinitive 
omitted when auxiliaries are used, 

1. I do see, 1. 

2. You do see, 2. 

3. He does see. 3. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 
Have, combined with the perfect participle. 



to of the infinitive 

We do see, 
You do see, 
They do see. 



1. 


I have seen, 


1. 


We have seen, 


2. 


You have seen, 


2. 


You have seen, 


3. 


He has seen. 


3. 

Past Tense. 


They have seen. 


1, 


I saw, 




1. We saw, 


2. 


You saw, 




2. You saw, 


3. 


He saw. 




3. They saw. 



Emphatic form. 
Did, combined with present infinitive. 

1. I did see, 

2. You did see, 

3. He did see. 

P 

1. I had seen, 

2. You had seen, 

3. He had seen. 



Review. — Page 92, Define compound element. Give a com- 
pound adjective element ; a compound adverbial element, 95. What 
is a subordinate connector ? Define a subordinate adjective connec- 
tor. Illustrate. 

*Note. — Let the verbs recite, love, respect, rozv and sweep be conjugated by 
other members of the class. 



1. 


We did see, 


2. 


You did see, 


3, 


They did see. 


°erfect Tense. 




1. 


We had seen, 


2. 


You had seen. 


3. 


They had seen. 



27,6 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Future Tense. 
Shall ox will, combined with present infinitive. 
Foretelling. 

1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, 

2. You will see, 2. You will see, 

3. He will see. 3. He will see. 

Promise, determination. 

1. I will see, 1. We will see. 

2. You shall see, 2. You shall see, 

3. He shall see. 3. They shall see. 

Future-Perfect Tense. 
Shall or will, combined with perfect infinitive. 
Simple foretelling. 

1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, 

2. You will have seen, 2. You will have seen, 

3. He will have seen. 3. They will have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense 



Singular. 










Plural. 


1. 


If I see, 








1. 


If we see, 


2. 


If you see, 








2. 


If you see. 


3. 


If he see. 


Emphatic 


form 




3. 


If they see. 


1. 


If I do see, 






1. 


If 


we do see, 


2. 


If you do see, 






2, 


If 


" you do see, 


3. 


If he does see. 






3. 


If 


" they do see, 






Past Tense. 








1. 


If I saw, 








1. 


If we saw, 


2. 


If you saw, 








2. 


If you saw, 


3. 


If he saw. 


Emphatic 


fonr 


i. 


3. 


If they :-aw. 


1. 


If I did see, 






1. 


If 


we did see, 


2. 


If you did sec, 






2. 


If 


you did see, 


3. 


If he did see. 






3. 


If 


they did see. 



CONJUGATION. 



2 37 



Past-Perfect Tense. 



1. 

2. 
3. 


If I had seen, 
If you had seen, 
If he had seen. 


• 

Or thus :- 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If we had seen, 
If you had seen, 
If they had seen, 


1. 

2, 
3. 


Had I seen, 
Had you seen, 
Had he seen. 




1. 
2. 
3. 


Had we seen, 
Had you seen, 
Had they seen. 



Plural. 
We may see, 
You may see, 
They may see. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 

Common form. 
Like the indicative, with one of the signs of the subjunctive pre- 
fixed, 

POTENTIAL MODE, 

Present Tense. 
May, can or must, combined with present infinitive. 

Singular. 

1. I may see, 1. 

2. You may see, 2. 

3. He may see. 3. 

Present-Perfect Tense. 

May, can or must, combined with perfect infinitive. 

1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, 

2. You may have seen, 2. You may have seen, 

3. He may have seen. 3. They may have seen. 
In same way, use can and must. 

Past Tense. 
Might, could, would or should, combined with present infinitive. 

1. I might see, 1. We might see, 

2. You might see, 2. You might see, 

3. He might see. 3. They might see. 
Use could, would and should in same manner. 



Review. — Page 95. Define a subordinate adverbial connector. 
Illustrate, Define a subordinate adjective connector. Illustrate, 
97. What is an interjection ? What does the word mean ? 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past-Perfect Tense. 
Might, could, would ox should, combined with perfect infinitive. 

1. I might have seen, l. m We might have seen, 

2. You might have seen, 2. You might have seen, 

3. He might have seen. 3. They might have seen. 
Use could, would and should in the same way. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tenses 
See you ; or, Do you see. 

Present. Perfect. 

Infinitives. — To see, To have seen. 

Participles. — Seeing, Seen, or having seen. 

Conjugate see, interrogatively, in the indicative and potential 
modes. 

Synopsis of the verb see, second person, singular num- 
ber, solemn style. 

indicative mode. 
Present Tense — Thou seest, or dost see. 
Present-Perfect Tense — Thou hast seen. 
Past Tense — Thou sawest, or didst see. 
Past-Perfect Tense — Thou hadst seen. 
Future Tense — Thou shalt see. 
Future-Perfect Tense — Thou shalt have seen. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
Present Tense — If thou see, or do see. 
Past Tense — If thou sawst, or didst see. 
Past-Perfect Tense — If thou hadst seen. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense — Thou mayst see. 
Present-Perfect Tense — Thou mayst have seen. 
Past Tense — Thou mightst see. 
Past-Perfect Tense — Thou mightst have seen. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present — See thou : or, Do thou see. 



CONJUGATION. 



239 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



The passive voice in any tense or any mode is formed by prefixin 
to the perfect participle the verb be'va. the same mode and tense. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I am seen, 

2. You are seen, 

3. He is seen. 



Plural. 
We are seen, 
You are seen, 
They are seen. 



Present-Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been seen, 1. We have been seen, 

2. You have been seen, 2. You have been seen, 

3. lie has been seen. 3. They have been seen. 





Past 


Tense 




1. 


I was seen, 




1. We were seen, 


2. 


You were seen, 




2. You were seen, 


3, 


He was seen. 




3. They were seen. 




Past-Pa 


■feet Tense. 


1. 


I had been seen, 


1. 


We had been seen, 


2. 


You had been seen, 


2. 


You had been seen, 


3. 


He had been seen. 


8. 


They had been seen. 




Fi/fnr 


e Tense. 


1. 


I shall be seen, 


1. 


We shall be seen, 


2. 


You will be seen, 


2. 


You will be seen, 


3. 


He will be seen. 


3. 


They will be seen. 



Future- Perfect Tense* 

1. I shall have been seen, 1. We shall have been seen, 

2. You will have been seen, 2. You will have been seen, 
o. He will have been seen. 8. They will have been seen. 



Review. — Page 107, What is meant by the terra parts of speech? 
Name the parts of speech. 108. Define proper noun. Define com- 
mon noun. Give examples of each. When does a noun, usually com- 
mon, become proper? When usually proper, become common: 
Illustrate by example. 



240 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. If I be seen, 

2. If you be seen, 

3. If he be seen. 



Plural. 
If we be seen, 
If you be seen, 
If they be seen. 



Past Tense. 

1. If I were seen, 1. If we were see*n, 

2. If you were seen, 2. If you were seen, 

3. If he were seen. 3. If they were seen. 



Past-Perfect Tense. 



1. If I had been seen, 

2. If you had been seen, 
0. If lie had been seen. 



1. Had I been seen, 

2. Had you been seen, 

3. Had lie been seen. 



Or.— 

1. 
o 



If we had been seen. 
If you had been seen, 
If they had been seen. 

Had we been seen, 
Had you been seen, 
Had they been seen. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. I may be seen, 

2. You may be seen, 

3. He mav be seen. 



Plural 

1. We may be seen, 

2. You may be seen, 

3. They may be seen. 



Present- Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been seen, 1. We may have been seen. 

2. You may have been seen, 2. You may have been seen, 

3. He may have been seen. 3. The) may have been seen 





Past Tense, 


1. 

2. 

3. 


I might be seen, 1. 
You might be seen, 2. 
He might be seen. 3. 



We might be seen, 
You might be seen, 
They might be seen. 



CONJUGATION. 24 1 

Past-Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been seen, 1. We might have been seen, 

2. You might have been seen, 2. You might have been seen, 

3. Pie might have been seen. 3. They might have been seen, 

In same manner, use can, must, could, would and should. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Be you seen. 

Present. Perfect. 

Infinitives. — To be seen, To have been seen. 

Participles. — Being seen, Having been seen. 

In the same manner, give the passive voice of love, observe, break, 
tore, kill, hold. 

The progressive form in any tense is formed by adding the pres- 
ent participle to the verb be in the same tense. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. 

1. I am seeing, 1. We are seeing, 

2. You are seeing, 2. You are seeing, 

3. He is seeing. 3. They are seeing. 

In similar manner, give the progressive of see in the present-perfect, 
past, past-perfect, future and future-perfect tenses of the indicative 
mode. 

POTENTIAL MODE, 

Present Tense 

1 . I may be seeing, 1. We may be seeing, 

2. You may be seeing, 2. You may be seeing, 

3. He may be seeing. 3. They may be seeing. 
Give the progressive form of the other tenses of the potential 

mode. 



Review. — Page 109. What is an abstract noun? Give five ex- 
amples. Define verbal nouns. Define collective nouns. Give ex- 
amples of verbal and collective nouns. 110. Give the rules for the 
use of capital letters Write a compound sentence illustrating each rule. 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

1. If I be seeing, 1, If we be seeing, 

2. If you be seeing, 2. If you be seeing, 

3. If he be seeing, 3. If they be seeing. 

Give the progressive of the other tenses of the subjunctive 
mode. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Be you seeing. 
Present. Present-Perfect. 

Infinitives. — To be seeing, To have been seeing. 

Present. Perfect. 

Participles. — Seeing, Having been seen. 

Give the synopsis of the verb see, active voice, first person, plural ; 
third person, singular ; first person, singular. 

Give the synopsis of the verb see, progressive form, active voice, 
third person, plural ; first person, singular ; second person, singular. 

Give the synopsis of the verb see, passive voice, third person, 
plural ; first person, plural ; third person, singular. 

With / for subject, give the synopsis of the verb build, in the 
active voice, in each tense of all the modes ; first in the common 
form ; then interrogatively ; then negatively (by inserting not) ; then 
emphatically. 

Use he, we, they and you for subjects. In same manner give 
synopsis of sold, gave, found, cut, respect, bit, 
Change into other forms of the same tense : 

He loves. He kills. He has seen. 

He drives. You study. I have written. 

What is the sign of the present indicative ? The past ? The 
future ? The present-perfect ? The past-perfect ? The future- 
perfect ? The present-potential ? The past ? The past-perfect ? 
Present-perfect ? 

What auxiliary is the sign of the perfect tense ? What of the 

future ? What of the passive voice ? What of the emphatic form? 

In what mode and tense do you find should have? Do? Could? 

Had? May have? Did? Must? Has? Will? Can have? 

Shall? Will have? Could have ? 

How is the present-perfect tense of the indicative mode formed ? 
The past-perfect ? The future-perfect ? How is a verb conjugated 



CONJUGATION. 243 

negatively ? How interrogatively ? Give the signs of the potential 
mode ; potential, present ; potential, past ; potential, past-perfect ; 
potential, present-perfect. What verbs may have the passive voice ? 
Define voice ; mode ; tense. How are verbs classified with regard to 
their form ? With regard to what they represent? How many and 
what tenses has the indicative mode? The potential? The impera- 
tive ? The subjunctive? What are participles and infinitives? 
How are they unlike? Name the properties of verbs. What are 
the peculiarities of the pure subjunctive? Define each mode ; each 
tense ; each voice. What is meant by the number and person of 
verbs? What is an attributive verb? A copulative verb? Name 
the copulative verbs. 



Review. — Page 113. Define person. Why is person called a 
property of pronouns? Is it strictly speaking a property of nouns? 
Why not? Why are there but three persons? When are nouns and 
pronouns of the first person ? 




ADVERBS. 



Adverbs are words used to limit the application of 
verbs, participles, infinitives, adjectives, adverbs prepo- 
sitions and propositions. They belong to the words they 
limit. 

Ex. — Horses run fast, A swiftly flowing stream is beautiful. 
To recite well is desirable. We are very happy. The swallow darts 
very swiftly. He is nearly under the eaves. The Indians are not 
civilized. 

Name the adverbs in the following, and state to what each 
belongs. 

He spoke easily and forcibly. Time never moved 
more rapidly, Ellen has gained the prize twice. You 
seem quite strong. He went limping along tD town. 
William goes to-morrow. I walked rapidly to the lake 
to see the very fleeting mirage, but it had entirely disap- 
peared. We almost caught the bird. I did not go. 
Where have you been ? Why did you go without per- 
mission ? Every business man should aim to write legi- 
bly and to spell correctly. He finally started. Henry is 
nearly over the Atlantic. Where shall I go ? The boy 
is fast asleep under the gently waving branch ; he does 
not know a storm is rapidly approaching. I was not here 
when you begun the good work. Truly, God is good. 
Possibly, we may fail. 

Adverbs are classified according to the ideas they ex- 
press, into those of, 

Manner ; as, well, beautifully, quickly. 

Time ; as, now, to-day, to-morrow, soon. 

244 



ADVERBS, 245 

Place ; as, where, here, there, near. 

Cause ; as, why, therefore. 

Degree or Quality; as, very, exceedingly, terribly, 
much, less. 

Number j as, once, twice. 

Order j as, first, last, finally. 

Affirmation j as, truly, yes, certainly. 

Negation ; as, no, not, not at all. 

Doubt j as, perhaps, possibly. 

Direction j as, downward, inward, upward. 

Interrogative adverbs are used in asking questions. 

Ex. — Where are you? How old are youf WJien did you come ? 
Why did Tiny go ? 

There are certain adverbs that belong to entire propositions, and 
that show how statements are made oy how considered ; that is, 
whether doubtingly, approvingly, negatively, or affirmatively. Since 
they show the manner, or mode, of making or of considering state- 
ments, they are called modal adverbs. 

Ex. — I shall undoubtedly be happy. The sun will surely rise. 
You will not sing. 

Which of the following modal adverbs express affirmation? 
Which doubt? Which approval? Which negation? 

Not, perhaps, yes, yea, probably, of course, by no 
means, maybe, truly, certainly, no, not, perchance, amen, 
indeed, nowise, verily. 

A few adverbs express addition, exclusion, or emphasis. 

Ex. — I shall dance too. I can also sing. They can only see. The 
sick person merely breathed. The mocking bird can sing, and also 
speak. The blacks are learning to read, to write, and, particularly, 
to work. 

Use the following adverbs in sentences, and tell whether they 
denote addition, exclusion, or emphasis. 



Review. — Page 114, When are nouns and pronouns of the 
second person? When are they of the third person? What is said 
of the punctuation marks that should follow and precede nouns of 
the second person? Illustrate this rule fully. 



246 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Moreover, too, even, likewise, also, merely, besides, 
particularly, withal. 

A word that has the form of an adverb, but that be- 
longs to no part of the sentence, is said to be inde- 
pendent. 

Ex. — Well, you can have it. Then, you are studying law. Why, 
that is funny. 

An independent adverb is sometimes a substitute for 
an unexpressed proposition. 

Ex. — Therefore, I will enlist. May I have it? Yes. Yes is a 
substitute for the proposition, you may have it, Amen is a substitute 
for so may it be. 

Some independent adverbs may be parsed as interjections ; 
others as conjunctions ; others as modal adverbs. 

When words usually adverbs, belong to elements to 
which adverbs do not belong, they are named according 
to their use. 

Any word used as an adverb, should be considered an 
adverb. 

Ex. — Swift flies the ball. Round spins the top. The street is 
forty feet wide. Forty feet gives the degree of width ; hence, has an 
adverbial use. Feet, if parsed as a noun, is the object of an unex- 
pressed preposition. 

Include the following adverbs in sentences. What idea is ex- 
pressed by each adverb? 

Afterward, therefore, farther, probably, merely, abun- 
dantly, to-day, lately, seldom, surely, how, until, forwards, 
very, happily, eloquently, meanly, yes, no, quite, away, 
nowhere, almost, twice, yonder, while, lately, already, nay, 
principally, nearly, sometimes, thirdly, hence. 

Change the following adjectives to adverbs. 

Wise, clear, eloquent, just, wide, ready, loud, soft, 
bright, sweet, mournful, light, fearful, happy, agreeable, 
contented, sure, constant, smooth, faithful, fair, elegant, 
whole, graceful. 



ADVERBS. 247 

Use each adjective and its corresponding adverb in 
the same sentence. 

Ex. — The wise man acts wisely. What ideas are expressed by the 
adjectives? By the adverbs ? These adverbs of manner are formed 
by adding what letters to adjectives ? 

Adverbs should be so placed as to leave no doubt as to 
What they are intended to limit. It is generally best to 
place them as near as possible to the parts they limit. 
Those adverbs that best express the idea intended to be 
conveyed should be used. 

Ex, — Geo. W. Curtis speaks very elegantly. The plague raged 
fearfully. 

Adjectives should be used to describe objects ; ad- 
verbs to describe acts. 

Ex. — The orange looks delicious, Delicious describes the quality 
of the orange. We sold the horse sound. Sound is an adjective 
and expresses a quality of the horse. He appeared well. Well is an 
adjective. He spoke well. Well is an adverb. 

Do not use two negatives in the same sentence, as they 
are equivalent to one affirmative. 

Ex. — I do not know nothing. 

Correct the following : 

I only saw Milla once. I can play too and sing. I 
came to see you not. Beautifully and all the time the 
bird sings. Are you too going to speak as well as write ? 
Our baby laughs magnificently. They all went to the 
mountains nearly fitted out alike. The thunder roared 
very prettily through the heavens, and the lightning 
flashed sweetly. He is a man undoubtedly, of great ability. 
I touched her shoulder gently. I am fully convinced 



Review. — Page 116. Define number. This property is usually 
indicated how ? What nouns and pronouns are singular? What 
nouns and pronouns are plural? When is a collective noun singular ? 
When is it plural ? 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that we are in error, in short. How gently and grace- 
fully the elephant moves. He nearly sailed round the 
globe. The lesson was recited admirable. We was near 
froze to death. Farmers live an extreme laborious life. 
I scarce know him. You are to quickly raise the flag 
when I shout. We ought not to continually be working for 
pleasure merely. I know not what to most desire. I see 
them clear as day. The sweetly singing of the lady 
charmed us. You have not no water nor bread. He in- 
tended to behave correct. Her dress looks elegantly. I 
have not got nothing to wear. The child is nicely this 
morning. He seems bravely. They were dressed beau- 
tiful. The noisy flowing water seems merrily. Merely, 
I should say, it was Thomas and Frank. A deliciously 
sparkling diamond made her seem brilliantly. 

Use four adverbs to describe the movement of a snake ; three, to 
describe the way an old person walks ; four, to tell how the baby 
met its father when he came from work ; three, to tell how you went 
to the depot to catch an early train ; several, to describe the move- 
ments of a fine skater ; three, to describe the first efforts to swim or 
to skate ; three, to tell how Columbus watched for land on his first 
voyage to America ; three, to tell how you should study ; several, to 
describe the speaking of some public man or woman whom you have 
heard, 

Use the following words in sentences so that each will represent 
different parts of speech. Ex. — He is a better man. He speaks 
better to-night. 

Worse, most, no, well, best, long, less, more, early, late, 
fast, yonder, ill, like. 

A conjunctive adverb is an adverb used to connect 
an adverbial proposition to the word that the proposition 
limits, and also to show what idea the proposition ex- 
presses. 

Ex. — I shall go when the ship arrives. I shall go if the ship ar- 
rive. I shall go because the ship has arrived. 



ADVERBS. 



249 



The conjunctive adverbs when, if and because join the adverbial 
clauses to shall go, and also show that the clauses express time, con- 
dition, and also reason. (For fuller discussion, see subordinate con- 
nectives.) 

Many adverbs are compared in the same manner as adjectives, 
There are more adverbs, than adjectives, that are not compared. The 
comparison is generally regular ; a few are compared irregularly. 





REGULAR. 




Positive. 


Comparative. 


Sziperlative, 


Soon, 


Sooner, 


Soonest. 


Wisely, 


More wisely, 


Most wisely. 


Easily, 


Less easily, 


Least easily. 


Rapidly, 


More rapidly, 

IRREGULAR. 


Most rapidly. 


Badly, 


Worse, 


Worst. 


Well, 


Better, 


Best. 


Much, 


More, 


Most. 


Far, 


Farther, 


Farthest. 


Little, 


Less, 


Least. 



Compare grandly, sweetly, late, early, bravely, much, ill, long, 
furiously, harshly, far, early, musically, correctly. 

Name four abverbs of time ; eight of manner ; four of place ; 
three of degree ; three of negation ; four of doubt ; five modal ad- 
verbs ; four conjunctive adverbs. 

MANNER OF PARSING ADVERBS. 

John speaks correctly. He will come sooner than 
many. 

Correctly limits the application of the verb speaks; hence, it is an 
adverb. It is not compared. It is in the positive degree. It be- 
longs to speaks, which it limits by showing manner. Rule : — Ad- 
verbs belong to the words they limit. Sooner limits the application 
of the verb will come; hence, it is an adverb. It is compared : posi- 



Review. — Page 116. Give sentences containing singular and 
plural collective nouns. 118. Give the rule for forming the plural 
of nouns ending in a sound that easily and pleasantly unites with the 
sound of j. Give four examples. 



250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tive, soon ; comparative, sooner ; superlative, soonest. It represents a 
higher degree than the positive ; hence, it is in the comparative de- 
gree. It belongs to will come, which it limits by showing time. 
Rule : — Adverbs belong to the words they limit. 

In similar manner, parse the adverbs of the following ; 

He spoke rapidly and forcibly. They will come to- 
morrow. I do not understand it. You will certainly suc- 
ceed. Where shall I go ? . O'Neil plays very well. Char- 
lotte Cushman is a most wonderful actress. Accordingly, 
they went on. He went almost to Rome. I have spoken 
thrice. 

In the following order, parse the adverbs in the sentences below : 

1. Part of speech. 

2. Compared. 

3. Degree. 

4. Use. 

5. Rule. 

Brilliantly is an adverb ; compared : brilliantly, more brilliantly, 
most brilliantly ; positive degree, and belongs to was illuminat- 
ed, which it limits by denoting manner. Rule : — Adverbs belong to 
the words they limit. 

The hall was brilliantly illuminated, and closely packed 
with the most intelligent people, who eagerly listened to 
all that was said. We have been too idle to hope for very 
much success ; but we will study more faithfully in the 
future. The horse paces easily. You shall go no far- 
ther. Many very small magnolias were springing up ; 
and we easily pulled up a few and wrapped their roots 
in the gray moss that is found everywhere. Love thyself 
last. 

" He (Sir Thomas More) stands unchangeably in the 
centre of eternal right ; his head majestically erect, glor- 
iously lifted up to heaven, bends not before the stroke ; 
and his heart receives the tempest only to shiver it." 



ADVERBS, 251 

To live with them is far less sweet 
Than to remember thee. 

Thus when the lamp that lighted 

The traveler, at first goes out, 
He feels awhile benighted 

And looks around in fear and doubt. — Moore. 

Read the principal and the subordinate propositions in the fol- 
lowing selections. To what does each subordinate proposition be- 
long, and what element is it? What idea does it express ? Analyze 
each proposition. Parse all the parts of speech you have considered 
in Part II. 

" There i; nothing to see ! 

It is only a. silver birch ; 

But it comes like a beautiful joy to me, 

Like the joy you feel so calm and free 

When all is still as still can be 

After a psalm at church." 

11 Wouldst know thyself? 
In others self discern. 
Wouldst thou know others 
Read thyself and learn." 

Indeed, the appearance of a tastefully attired woman 
on a fashionable promenade to-day, reminds one, in its 
results, of the old Indian fable of the beautiful young 
god who appeared among a nation of hunchbacks. He 
was saved from death, we are told "only by the ingenuity 
of one who had seen other men, and who suggested that 
they should repair to the temple to thank the gods that 
heaven had at least bestowed upon them the gift of 
beauty."— -£. S. Phelps. 

"God made the country, and man made the town." 

But pleasures are like poppies spread,' 

You seize the flower, its bloom is shed ; 

Or, like the snow-fall in the river, 

A moment white, then melts forever. — Robert Burns. 



Review. — Page 118. What is the rule for forming the plural of 
nouns ending in a sound that does not easily nor pleasantly unite 
with the sound of s? Illustrate the rule. The plural of nouns end- 
ing in^y, preceded by a vowel, is found how ? 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The fear o' hell's a hangman's whip 

To haud the wretch in order ; 
But where ye feel your honor grip, 

Let that aye be your border. — Burns. 

" The hand that rounded Peter's dome, 
And groined the aisles in Christian Rome, 
Wrought in a sad sincerity ; 
Himself from God he could not free ; 
He builded better than he knew ; 
The conscious stone to beauty grew." 

I have been young and now am old, yet have I not 
seen the righteous forsaken, nor his seed begging 
bread. — Psalms. 

The Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the 
Sabbath. — Mark /, 27. 

Every effort was made to assist the women up the mast 
and out'of danger till help arrived ; but they could not 
climb, and we were forced to leave them to their fate. 

Fair hangs the moon and soft the zephyr blows, 

While proudly riding o'er the azure realm 

In gallant trim the gliding vessel goes. — Gray. 

Can storied urn or animated bust 

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? 

Can honor's voice provoke the silent dust, 
Or flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? — Id. 




PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition is a relation word. It connects its ob- 
ject to the word to which the object belongs. 

Ex. — The birds of Australia are unlike those <?/"<_>ther parts of 
the world. We sailed on a boat towards the islands. He spoke of 
John. 

A simple preposition consists of one word. 

Ex. — Danger is before us. 

A complex preposition consists of two words per- 
forming the office of one. 

Ex. — Do it according to the model. 

The part used with a preposition to form a simple ele- 
ment, is the object of the preposition. 

Ex. — I took to you. He moves with, grace. 

The object may be a noun, a pronoun, a participle, an 
infinitive, a proposition. 

Ex. — He attends school in Boston. He recites to her. Frank ex- 
cels in teaching the deaf and dumb. None knew thee except to hon- 
or thee. This will be governed by who attempts to enforce it. 

Two or more prepositions may have one object. One 
preposition may have two or more objects. 

Ex. — The boy walked in and around the place, lie spoke of 
John, Clinton and Richard. 

A preposition and its object may be separated from 
each other ; the object may precede the preposition. 



Review. — Page 118. How formed when_y is preceded by a con- 
sonant ? Illustrate the last two rules. 119. The/" of nouns ending 
\\\ f or fe, is changed to v when ? What letter or letters are added 
to v? When is only s added ? When is es added ? 

253 



254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — What did you speak of?. Better — (9/" what did you speak? 

Prepositions may be understood. 

Ex. — They traveled (over) mountains and valleys. They were de- 
tained (during) all day. 

A preposition and its object may be used with a copula 
to form a simple predicate. 

Ex. — James is beneath notice. The watch was worth fifty dollars. 

A preposition and its object may be an adjective, an 
adverbial, or an indirect objective element. 

Ex. — The dress of silk was bought in New York, and given 
to Anna, 

As an adverbial element, it may express — 

Manner: — The lady spoke without hesitation. He behaved 
like a soldier. 

Time : — Larks sing in the morning. 

Place : — Arbutus grows in JVew England. 

Direction : — The cars go from New York towards Boston. 

Motive : — Miners delve for gold. 

Result : — He was frightened to death. 

Means or instrument : — It was accomplished by strategy. The 
farmer cuts grass with a scythe. 

Exclusion : — All went but James. 

Cause : — He tumbled from fear. 

Circumstances attending : — We escaped in the confusion. 

Accompaniment : — He danced with his mother. 

As an adjective element it may express — 

Color : — A dress of scarlet. 

Size : — A river of great length. 

Place : — Trees in the grove. 

Form : — A girl with a slender figure. 

Taste : — Fruit of bitterness. 

Material : — Ball of rubber. 

Moral character : — Boy of generosity. 

Source : — Rays of the sun. 

Possession : — Books of the minister. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



: 55 



As an indirect objective element it may express — 
To what an action, &c, tends: 

We are desirous of money. He presented it to the school. He 
wrote a letter to Mary. 

From what an action, &c, tends: 
He took it from the school. 

That out of or from which a thing is made: 
The box was made from wood. 
The theme of discourse: 

He wrote on history. Henry talked of John. Helen spoke 
about moving, 

That for whom a thing is done: 
I work for Mr. Smith. 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions in 
use : 



Aboard. 


Behind. 


Into. 


Throughout, 


About. 


Below. 


'Mid. 


Till, 


Above. 


Beneath. 


'Midst. 


To. 


According to. 


Beside, or 


Notwithstanding Touching, 


Across. 


Besides. 


Of. 


Toward, or 


Adown. 


Between. 


Off. 


Towards. 


After. 


Betwixt. 


On. 


Under. 


Against. 


But. 


Opposite. 


Underneath. 


Along. 


Beyond. 


Out of. 


Until. 


Amid, or 


By. 


Over. 


Unto. 


Amidst. 


Concerning. 


Past. 


Up, 


Among, or 


Despite. 


Pending. 


Upon, 


Amongst. 


Down. 


Per. 


Versus, 


Around. 


During. 


Regarding. 


Via. 


Aslant. 


Ere. 


Respecting. 


With. 


Astride. 


Except. 


Round. 


Within. 



Review. — Page 119. When the sound of the final f is not changed 
in the plural, how is the plural formed. Illustrate these rules. The 
plurals of nouns ending with o, preceded by a vowel, are formed 
how ? 



216 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



At. 

Athwart. 
Bating. 
Before. 



Excepting. 
For. 
From. 
In. 



Saw. 
Save. 
Since. 
Through. 



Without. 
Worth. 



Aboard of. 
According to. 
Along with. 
From among. 
From before. 



LIST OF COMPLEX PREPOSITIONS 

From beneath. 
" between. 
" betwixt. 
" off. 
" out. 



From under. 
Instead of. 
Out of. 
Round about. 
Over against. 

When any one of the above words is used without an 
object, it is an adverb. 

Ex. — He walked tip and down. He looked across. 

Certain words should be followed by certain preposi- 
tions. To determine what preposition to use, the part 
that precedes, and the part that follows, should be noticed. 

Ex. — He walked upon the roof. He walked in the house. He 
walked through fire. He walked with John. He walked according 
to will. He walked with caution. He walked among graves. 

The following list of words, and of the prepositions 
that may follow them, should be studied carefully. 

Use in a sentence each of these words, and its associated prepo- 
sitions. 

Abhorrence of. Admission to, into. Believe in, on. 

Abhorrent to, from. Admonish of. Bestow upon, on. 

Abound in, with* Affection for. Betray to, into. 

Abridge from. Affinity to, with. Bind to, in. 

Access to. Agree with, to, upon. Blush at, for. 

Accommodate to, with. Antipathy to, against. Boast of. 
Accord with. Array with, in. Border on, upon. 

Accuse of. Ask of, for, after. 

Acquaint with. Assent to. 

Acquiescence in. Associate with. 

Acquit of. Assure of. 

Adequate to. Attain to. 



Call on, at, to. 
Change for, to, into, 

with. 
Careful of, in. 
Compare with, to. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



257 



Comply with. 
Concede to. 
Confide in. 
Convict of, in. 
Conformable to, with. 
Congenial to, with. 
Consist of, in. 
Consistent with. 
Contrast with. 
Copy after, from. 
Correspond with, to. 
Defend from, against. 
Deficient in. 
Depend on. 
Destined to. 
Die of, by for. 
Differ from, with. 
Difficulty in, with. 
Disgusted at, with. 
Dissent from. 
Divide between, 

among. 
Eager in, for, after. 
Embark in, for. 
Employ in, on, about. 
Entrance into, on, 

upon. 
Equal with, to. 
Equivalent to. 
Estimated at. 
Exception to 
Exclude from. 
Extracted from. 



Fall under, out of, 
from, into. 

Familiar to, with. 

Foreign to, from. 

Founded on, upon, in. 

Fruitful in. 

Glad of, at. 

Grateful to, for. 

Guard against. 

Hinder from. 

Incentive to. 

Incorporate in, into. 

Indulge with, in. 

Influence on, over, 
with. 

Inform of, about, con- 
cerning. 

Initiate into. 

Insist upon. 

Intervene between. 

Introduce into, to. 

Invested with, in. 

Lame of. 

Land at. 

Long for, after. 

Look on, for, after. 

Marry to, into. 

Martyr for. 

Mingle with, among. 

Necessary to, for. 

Neglectful of. 

Offend against. 

Omitted from. 



Pleasant to, about. 
Pleased with. 
Preference to, over. 
Prefix to. 
Prejudice against. 
Prevail with, 

upon, against. 
Prey on, upon. 
Protect from, against. 
Provide with, for. 
Reckon on, upon. 
Reconcile to, with. 
Reduce to, under. 
Reflect on, upon. 
Regard for, to. 
Release from. 
Relieve of from. 
Rely on, upon. 
Reproach for. 
Resemblance to, 

between. 
Rise above, to. 
Rule over. 
Share in, of, with. 
Sympathy for, with. 
Tax with, for. 
Think of, on. 
Unison with. 
Unite to, with. 
Useful for. 
Value upon, on, to. 
Vest in, with. 
Wait upon, on, about. 



Since reckons from a stated time : He lias not been here since 



Review. Page 119. How formed when the final is preceded 
by a consonant ? Illustrate. Give the rule for forming the plurals 
of letters, signs and figures. Illustrate the rule. When are the 
plurals of nouns said to be formed irregularly ? 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Wednesday. He was here last October, but lias not been since. He 
came here a day since, (wrong ) 

Correct the following : 

You should aim to perfection, even though you may not 
arrive to it. He boards to the hotel. Come in my room. 
I am prejudiced to them men. He presided upon the 
meeting to the church. Do you trust upon John ? Get- 
ting an education to any school is attended with labor. 
George hurt himself a time since. The man who I bought 
the horse on is not honest. I rejoice upon your coming. 
Transmit the letter at Boston to once. I differ with you. 
There is a resemblance of them boys. Be careful with 
your books. With what do you excel ? He lives at 
Chicago and boards in the hotel. When I got at London 
I was shocked with the fog, disgusted by the rain, smeared 
at the smoke. He came a few days since, and I was glad 
to go at my hotel. He died with a fever. I lived with 
security when the soldiers were not abandoned from dis- 
order. By all probability he will accept of the proposi- 
tion. He was kicked with a vicious horse. Do not go 
by such violence. Did you see the fight by the dog against 
the cat ? What is the matter of him ? 

What ideas are expressed by the following italicized elements? 
Try to express accurately the differences between them, 

Singing from a book* Singing from memory. Singing for joy. 
Singing for the absent member. Singing to mother. Singing with 
earnestness. Singing between the acts. Singing of spring. Singing 
of the dead maiden. The singing of the brook. Standing by the post. 
Standing on the post. Standing on one foot. Standing for rest. 
Standing from necessity. Standing with grace. Standing above the 
stream. Standing over the stream. The standing of the man. 



Review. — Page 120. How are compound words pluralized? Give 
four examples. Name six nouns whose singulars and plurals are 
alike. When are abstract nouns plui-alized ? When is it right to 
pluralize names of substances. Illustrate,, 



PREPOSITIONS. 259 

lie goes from necessity. He goes with Edward. He goes on the 
boat. He goes with the house. He goes in the house. He goes from 
the house. He goes tozvards the house. He goes to the house. He 
goes for the house. He goes against the house. He goes on the 
house. He goes under the house. He goes between the houses. He 
goes by the house. 

These examples show how well prepositions are adapted to ex- 
press shades of meaning. 

Use as many prepositions as possible with each of the following 
words : Love, walk, talk, advantage, inquire, seek, sink, touch, intrude, 
contend, smile, yearn, weep, differ, rest, anxious, rings, fruit, admis- 
sion, thankful, trust, dwell. 

PARSING OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Isabella of Spain gave money to Columbus. 

Of is a relation word ; hence, it is a preposition. It, with its ob- 
ject, Spain, forms an adjective element that identifies the noun, 
Isabella, by showing place ; hence, it shows an adjective relation of 
place between Isabella and Spain. 

To is a relation word ; hence, it is a preposition. It, with its ob- 
ject, Columbus, forms an indirect objective element that limits gave 
by showing to whom ; hence, it shows an indirect objective relation 
between Columbus 2\\<S.gave. 

In a similar manner, parse the following prepositions : 

The horse gallops in the field. He looked from his 
book. The leaves of the oak glisten after the rain. The 
dog ran after his master. He rode astride the horse. We 
go to Boston via New York. It was done according to 
rule. Use leather instead of cloth. Across the moun- 
tains are several families of Frenchmen. The grass in 
the yard flashes in the sun. There is commotion through- 
out the land.* 

*Note. — Observe the element of which the preposition is part, whether it be 
adjective, adverbial, or objective ; whether it express time, place, motion, &c. 
Having decided these points, the preposition can be parsed correctly. 



Review. — Page 120. What nouns are always in the plural ? 
What are the rules for pluralizing proper nouns and their titles ? 
What word should precede the plural of a proper noun and title ? 
Illustrate. 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Parse the prepositions of the following sentences according to the 
abbreviated form. Follow the order given below. 

i. Part of speech. 

2. Kind of relation shown, and between what. 

3. Rule. 

Indians live in huts made of bark and boughs. 

In is a preposition, showing an adverbial relation of place between 
huts and live. Rule — A preposition shows a relation between its 
object and the word to which the prepositional element belongs. 

We rode through the city, past the church and by the 
lake. My home in Conneticut is situated among the hills. 
I love to hear the birds sing in the morning. The flowers 
are glad to receive the dew of evening. The trees are 
covered with a mantle of grey moss. In our town lives 
a man of the Old School. He is polite to every one. 
The rotation of the earth on its axis was not known to 
the ancients. Tea was introduced into Europe by the 
Dutch. 

" If happiness on wealth were built, 
Rich rogues might comfort find in guilt." 

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear." 

While Columbus was engaged in his successive voyages 
to the West, the spirit of discovery did not languish in 
Portugal. 

All men in reality converse either with God or with the 
Devil, and walk in the confines either of hell or of heaven. 
Be not ashamed of thy virtues ; honor is a good brooch 
to wear in a man's hat at all times. — Ben. Jonson. The 
shadow of human life is traced upon a golden ground of 
immortal hope. To overcome evil with good is good, to 

Review. — Page 120. Name nouns that have both regular and 
irregular plurals. Name ten nouns from a foreign language that have 
retained their foreign plurals. 123. Define gender. How many 
genders are there? Why should there be this number? 



PREPOSITIONS. 26l 

resist evil by evil is evil. — Mohammed. The first great 
gift we can bestow on others is a good example. Fame, 
a flower upon a dead man's heart. If a man empties his 
purse into his head, no man can take it from him. — 
Franklin. Kindness gives birth to kindness. Day unto 
day uttereth speech, and night unto night sheweth knowl- 
edge. Parting day dies like a dolphin, whom each pang 
imbues with a new color. 

But v/hat am I ? 

An infant crying in the night : 
An infant crying for the light : 
And with no language hut a cry. — Tennyson. 

And thus he hore without abuse 

The grand old name of gentleman, 

Defamed by ev'ry charlatan, 
And soiled with all ignoble use. — Tennyson. 

You hear that boy laughing? — Yon think lie's all fun ; 

But the angels laugh, too, at the good he has done ; 

The children laugh loud as they trip to his call, 

And the poor man that knows him, laughs loudest of all, — O. IV. Holmes. 

Review by having one pupil name the nouns of the above sen- 
tences ; another, the verbs ; another, the adjectives ; and so on, 'till 
the parts of speech have been given. Give the cases of all the nouns 
and pronouns, their person, class, gender and number. Review the 
verbs by pronouncing the voices of all, then the other properties. 
Let the work be rapid ; if A hesitate, let B go on. Adjectives may 
be reviewed by giving the ideas expressed, the degrees of comparison, 
the words to which they belong. Review adverbs in a similar manner. 



Review. — Page 124. What nouns and pronouns are of the mas- 
culine gender? Of the feminine ? Of the common? Of the neuter? 
Why are the words common and neuter appropriate terms to use. 
Write a compound sentence containing words illustrating the four 
genders. 




CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a co-ordinate or a subordinate con- 
nector. 

Ex.— You and I saw it. They hunt neither quails nor ducks. He 
either sings or plays sweetly and correctly. He began to plant and 
to sow. The cars run to Boston and 'to New York. Chestnuts grow 
in New England, and children gather them. The horse is beautiful, 
but the mule is homely. If he stay, we shall be happy. When the 
wind blows, the cradle will rock. 

Name the conjunctions in the above, and state what each connects. 

There are two classes of conjunctions: co-ordinate and 
subordinate. 

Co-ordinate conjunctions connect elements of the 
same rank and use. 

Ex. — Robins and swallows fly about houses and barns. You can 
go, but John must remain, I have ;z«7/^rbrothers nor sisters. You 
have culture and also wealth. 

Subordinate conjunctions connect elements of 
different rank and use. 

Ex.— If well used, the eyes last long. The grass grows when the 
sun shines. Henry enlisted because he desired to fight for his country. 

A subordinate conjunction resembles a preposition, 
because it joins a subordinate to a principal element, and 
generally shows what idea the subordinate expresses. 

Ex. — If zvhen and because express ideas of condition, time and 
cause. 

Review. — Page 124. If one noun be used to represent the males 
and the females of a given class, what gender is employed. Give 
examples. When is an object personified ? Illustrate personifica- 
tion. What kind of inanimate objects are represented by masculine 
words? What kind of inanimate objects are personified as females? 

262 



CONJUNCTIONS. 263 

A co-ordinate conjunction may show — 

That the added parts are in harmony: 

Ex. — The day dawned, and we started. Rubber and pencils are 
necessary in drawing. Both horses and mules are used as beasts of 
burden, 

That the added parts are in opposition to, or in con- 
trast with, each other. 

Ex, — She learns easily, but she forgets soon. We have apples, but 
no bread. They were brave, but yet they did not succeed. 

That a choice is offered or denied. 

Ex. — We must study, or fail. We can neitherwalk nor run. 

There are, therefore, three classes of co-ordinate con- 
junctions: copulative, adversative and alternative. 

Define a copulative conjunction ; an adversative ; an alternative. 

A subordinate conjunction may join — 

An adjective proposition to the word limited by the 
proposition: 

Ex. — The bird that sings so early, is the robin. I know the place 
where your lily grows. We honor the person who subdues himself. 

An adverbial proposition to the word limited by the 
proposition: 

Ex, — The ocean roars wheti the wind is high. The grass sparkles 
because it is wet. The mother denied herself that her child might 
attend school. 

An objective proposition to the word limited by the 
proposition: 

Ex. — He declared that he would go. He answered that not one 
had returned. I wish to know where you are. 

There are, therefore, three classes of subordinate con- 
junctions: adjective, adverbial and objective. Define 
each. 



Review. — Page 124. Write a complex sentence illustrating per- 
sonification. 125 — 126. In how many ways do nouns indicate 
sexes? Give four examples of each method. 128—137. Define 
case. How many cases are there ? 



264 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Conjunctions may express — 

f Addition, — Roses and violets are beautiful. As- 
well— as, besides, also, so, further- 
more, moreover, both and, not 
only but, but likewise. 
! Apposition. — He is ill, but he will recover. Yet, 
still, however, notwithstanding, 
nevertheless. 
Alternation. — John or Mary is here. Nor, 

eithei, neither. 
Comparison. — Learning is more valuable than 
gold. As, as — as, as — so, more 
than, less than, the — the, such 
—that. 



Co-ordinate. \ 



Purpose or Statement. — He went that he 
might hear. He said that not one was left. 
So that, in order that, so as. 
Cause. — Baby cries because she i-s hurt. Since, 

as, for, inasmuch, whereas. 
Inference. — The boy is wounded, consequently 
his mother will come. Hence, then, so that, 
therefore. 

Condition, — The grass will grow, provided it 
Subordinate.^ rain. If, except, less, unless, 

I Concession. — Though he slay me, yet will I 

trust him. Although, what though, even 

though, even if, albeit, notwithstanding. 

I Time. — He starts when the bell rings. Before, 

ere, while, as, after, as soon as, the moment, 

till, until, as frequently as, as long as,as often as. 

Place. — She sleeps where the willow bends. 

Whither, whence, wherever, as far as, as long 

[ a?, farther than. 



Review. — Page 128 — 137. When is a noun in the nominative 
case ? When are words in the objective case ? When are nouns 
and pronouns in the possessive case ? When is a noun said to be in 
the independent case ? 



CONJUNCTIONS. 265 

A correlative conjunction is one of a pair that con- 
nects the same parts. 

Ex. — Both you and your son are invited. 

CORRELATIVES. 

Both — and. Both books and papers were sold. 

Either — or. Either yours or mine is lost. 

Neither — nor. They neither read nor write. 

Whether — or, Whether it is white or black, I do not 

know. 

Though — Yet. Though deep, yet clear. 
Though — nevertheless. Though poor, nevertheless proud. 

If — then. If you are afraid, then stay. 

As — so. As you work, so will you be paid. 

As — as. Horses are as useful as oxen. 

So — as. Re so attentive as to deserve praise. 

So — that. They spoke so loud that they heard. 

Not only — but also. Not only John but also William came. 

When — then. When honesty goes, then self-respect goes. 

Where — there. Where the master is, there will the dog be. 

Use in sentences all the conjunctions in the above lists, taking 
care that each one of a class is used so as to express the idea of its 
class. Those under the heads of addition, and place, must express 
addition, and place. 

Name the conjunctions in the following. State to what principal, 
and to what subordinate class each belongs, and, if subordinate, 
what special idea it expresses. Study the punctuation of the co- 
ordinate, and of the subordinate parts. 

You may go if he invite you. The rain was pouring 
when the battle began Though he be ill, yet he attends 
to his work. I know that honesty is better than wealth ; 
(i. e., better than wealth is). Hear instruction, and 
improve your life. His mother plead with him, but he 



Review. — Page 128 — 137. When a word identifies a noun or 
pronoun, in what case is it ? Illustrate by sentences all the relations 
nouns and pronouns may hold to other words. How is the possessive 
singular of nouns formed ? Give examples. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

would not listen. When the million applaud, ask yourself 
what harm you have done. As light is the most beautiful 
and delightful of all objects we contemplate, so the eye 
is the most beautiful and wonderful of all our organs. 
Days, months, years and ages shall circle away, and still 
thy waves, Oh, ocean, shall roll. That crime abounds, no 
one doubts. But, whether sick or well, joyous or sad, 
rich or poor, he was always respected. We are as happy 
as birds. Daniel Webster, who was the son of a farmer, 
made his first plea in behalf of a woodchuck. Though 
the rain fall, and the wind blow ; though the sun be down, 
and no stars shine ; though the horse fail, and we be forced 
to walk, still we must keep on. Do you see the bird that 
has the red breast ? That book, which has been in the 
family one hundred years, was owned by Washington. 
He spoke so low that none could hear. She worked con- 
stantly, that she might support her family. The soldiers 
will remain as long as there is danger. The ground is 
very wet, therefore I believe it rained last night. He is 
undoubtedly a soldier of great bravery ; but he lacks 
judgment. When we moved to Minnesota in one of those 
"prairie schooners," as the white-topped wagons are 
called; when we put up our log cabin; when we first 
broke the virgin soil, we were young, strong and hopeful. 

METHOD OF PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Svanoe cheered and encouraged me ; but she neither 
lied nor flattered. 

And connects cheered and encouraged, elements of the same rank 
and use ; hence, it is a co-ordinate conjunction. It shows that the 
parts added are in harmony ; hence, it is copulative. Rule. — Co- 



Review. — Page 128 — 137. What exceptions are there to this rule? 
How is the possessive of plural nouns ending in s, formed? Illustrate. 
How is the possessive of plural nouns not ending in s } formed ? 

Illustrate, 



CONJUNCTIONS. 267 

ordinate conjunctions connect elements of the same rank and use. 

But connects Svanoe cheered and encouraged and she neither lied 
nor flattered, elements of the same rank and use ; hence, it is co- 
ordinate. It shows that the connected parts are opposed ; hence, it 
is adversative. Rule. 

Neither, with its correlative, nor, connects lied and flattered, ele- 
ments of the same rank and use ; hence, it is co-ordinate. It shows 
that an alternative is offered ; hence, it is an alternative conjunction. 
Rule. 

When we were in Oswego, we studied that we might 
understand how to teach others. The boat does not 
move as fast as the cars. The pencil that I have is long. 

When connects the subordinate, adverbial proposition, ive were in 
Oswego, to studied; and also shows that the proposition expresses 
time ; hence, it is a subordinate, adverbial conjunction of time. 
Rule. — Subordinate conjunctions connect parts of unlike rank and use. 

That connects the subordinate, adverbial proposition, ive might 
understand hoxa to teach others, to studied/ it shows that the proposi- 
tion expresses purpose ; hence, it is a subordinate, adverbial conjunc- 
tion of purpose. Rule. 

As — as connects the subordinate, adverbial proposition, the cars 
(move), to fast; it shows comparison ; hence, it is a subordinate, 
adverbial conjunction of comparison. Rule. 

The first as may be parsed as an adverb limiting fast; the second 
as as a subordinate, adverbial conjunction connecting the cars {move) 
to as; the second proposition renders definite the idea expressed by 
the first as. 

That connects the subordinate, adjective proposition, thai I have, 
to pencil ; hence, it is a subordinate, adjective conjunction. Rule. 

In a similar manner, parse the conjunctions of the following sen- 
tences : 

The river that overflowed its banks, has done much 
damage. Robert went into the garden that he might 



Review. — Page 138. Define pronoun, What is the antecedent 
of a pronoun ? Illustrate. Give a sentence in which the antecedent 
of a pronoun is not expressed. When may the antecedent be un- 
known? 



26S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

gather a bouquet for his mother, who was going away. 
As soon as we awoke, we arose and prepared for the 
journey. We are either governed by pure or by impure 
motives. Washington was pure and honest. If you will 
listen, you will hear the bird that charms all who hear its 
song. I shall fish where the water is deep. Even though 
you fail, you must try again. To and fro the angry tiger 
walks. 

ABBREVIATED METHOD OF PARSING CONJUNCTIONS. 

Before I finish this book, I must tell you that the com- 
mon fly and the honey bee are still more wonderful. 

Before is a subordinate, adverbial conjunction, connecting the 
subordinate, adverbial proposition, I finish this book, to must tell* 
Rule. 

Thai is a subordinate, objective conjunction, connecting the sub- 
ordinate, objective proposition, the common fly and the honey bee are 
still more wonderful, to must tell. Rule. 

And'is a co-ordinate, copulative conjunction, connecting fly and 
bee. Rule. 

Parse the conjunctions of the following sentences by the abbre- 
viated method. 

Lord, make me to know mine end, and the measure of 
my days, what it is ; that I may know how frail I am. 
Keep me as the apple of thine eye. He heapeth up 
riches, and knoweth not who shall gather them. Promo- 
tion cometh neither from the east, nor from the west, nor 
from the south. But thy eternal summer shall not fade. 

How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is 
To have a thankless child. — Shakespeare. 

Mine enemy's dog, 
Though he had bit me, should have stood that night 
Against my fire. — Id. 



Review. — Page 139. Define personal pronoun. Name the per- 
sonal pronouns. Give the ancient personal pronouns. In what 
works are they found ? What does the word it sometimes represent? 
When is it an expletive ? Illustrate. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 269 

By observing the sentences in this chapter, you must 
have inferred the following — 

RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

Co-ordinate propositions, when closely connected, are 
separated by the comma, when less closely connected, 
by the semicolon — and sometimes, by the colon. 

An adverbial proposition that is placed before the 
principal proposition, or considerably removed from the 
word it limits, is generally set off by the comma. An 
adverbial element that is very emphatic or very paren- 
thetic, is generally set off by the comma. 

The rules for punctuating adjective clauses, have been 
given in the chapter on Relative Pronouns. 

Properly punctuate the following sentences. Give the rules for 
the points used. 

We started early but before the journey was half com- 
pleted night black night was upon us When you have 
nothing to say say nothing This woman who was reared 
among uncultivated unrefined persons and on the Western 
frontier has a fine broad culture You must study if you 
would succeed. The farther he journeyed the more he felt 
the more he tried to forget his home the more vividly it 
was recalled Extravagance is folly and wickedness, for 
it ends sooner or later in unhappiness and crime It is 
the first point of wisdom to ward off evils the second to 
make them beneficial There is good for the virtuous 
reward for the industrious purity for the pure When he 
first wakened he ran to the window then seeing the day 
was fair he dressed in haste and before the other members 



Review- — Page 139. Name the compound personal pronouns. 
How are they formed? 140 — 141, What is declension? Decline 
the pronouns f,you, thoti, lie, she, it, myself, thyself, yourself, herself, 
himself Use If 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of the party were up had eaten his breakfast read the 
papers paid his bills and was ready to start on his journey 

Half way down 
Hangs one that gathers samphire dreadful trade 
Methinks he seems no bigger than his head 
The fishermen that walk upon the beach 
Appear like mice — Shakespeare 

The robb'd that smiles steals something from the thief 
It was forbidden under pain of death to export from 
China the silk -worms' eggs The song of the Cicada so 
sharp so discordant was however the delight of the Greeks 
What are you then so mean Hurrah here comes if I 
mistake not Anna and Keria Oh I am glad to see them 
Girls how are we to learn to draw as we have no teacher 
The stream reflected the blue of the sky and the green 
of the trees danced and frolicked and bubbled and 
gurgled and the boy standing by the shore line in hand 
forgot to fish while he watched the pranks of the clear 
beautiful brook. 



Review. — Page 142, Name a pronoun that may represent not 
only its antecedent, but also a possessive pronoun. Name all the 
pronouns that are used in the same way. With what do pronouns 
agree ? In what properties do pronouns agree with their antecedents .'' 
Illustrate by examples. 

Review. — Page 148, Define declension, Decline 70/10, which, 
that, %uhat y 149. How many different offices does every relative 
fill ? In what particulars are all relatives alike ? Illustrate, How 
are essential adjective propositions punctuated ? Illustrate, 

Review Page 149, How are adjective propositions that give an 

additional idea, not essential, punctuated? Illustrate. When is an 
adjective proposition followed by a period ? by a comma? by an 
exclamation point ? by an interrogation mark ? 



INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection is an exclamatory word used to ex- 
press an emotion. 

Interjections are not related to other words, hence, 
they are said to be used independently. 

The following are the principal interjections : 

Approval or joy — Good ! hurrah ! bravo ! oh ! aha ! 

Saluting — Welcome ! good morning ! hail ! good 
evening ! 

Parting — Good bye ! farewell ! adieu ! 

Attention or calling — Look! seel halloo! ahoy! 
behold! 

Earnestness m speaking — O ! 

Silence — Mum ! hush ! hist ! st ! whist ! 

Sorrow or pity — Oh ! ah ! alas ! 

Contempt — Poh ! pshaw! pish! boh! fie! 

Laughter — Ha, ha, ha ! ho, ho, ho ! he, he, he ! 

Dejection — Aha! oho! 

Also used in other senses, derision, &c, with circumflex on last 
syllable. 

Surprise — Indeed! hoh ! ha! what! whew! oh! 
Imitation — Splash dash! tu\vhit-tuwhit-tuwho-o o-o ! 
Use in spoken sentences each of the above interjections. 

Any word used as an interjection, is an interjection. 
Ex. — What! Mercy] A vaunt ! Away! 



Review,— Page 144. — Give the order of parsing personal pro- 
nouns. 147, Define relative pronouns. Why called relative? Name 
the relatives. What does who represent ? What does which? that? 
what? When is as a, relative? Give sentences containing the rela- 
tives properly used. 271 



27 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A collection of words not-forming a sentence and used 
to express emotion, is an interjection. 
Ex. — Ah me ! Out upon him ! 

O is used to introduce the noun representing the object 
addressed, when the speaker is very earnest. 

Ex. — O mother ! will you not forgive ? 

Oh! should be used only when emotion is to be indi- 
cated. 

Ex. — Oh ! keep your conscience clear. 

Interjections are parsed by telling the part of speech, 
and the emotion expressed. 

Hurrah ! they are coming. 

Hurrah! is an interjection of joy; is used independently. Rule — 
Interjections are not related to other words. 

Parse the interjections: 

Alas! is my friend dead? Halloo! we want help. 
O comrades ! let us fight for our homes. 
What ! shall we sink so low ? Out with you ! 
Huzza! huzza! they homeward come ! Lol the king 
apfjroaches. What a story ! 

Review. — Page 149„ — When is it right to have no point after an 
adjective proposition ? Illustrate each of the rules for punctuating 
adjective propositions. 150. When is that preferred to which? 
Illustrate, When is which preferred to that? Illustrate. 

Review. — Page 150. — What relative is used when the antecedent 
is who or a personal pronoun? Illustrate. When is that preferred 
to who or to which? What are the peculiarities of what? Illus- 
trate. Give the order of parsing the relatives. 

Review. — Page 154. — What is a compound relative? Name the 
compound relatives. How are they formed ? In what kind of prop- 
ositions are relatives found ? In what kind are personal pronouns 
found ? Are personal pronouns connectors ? 




PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written compo- 
sition by points, for the purpose of showing the meaning 
and construction of sentences. 

The principal marks are : 



Comma, 


9 


Semicolon, 


• 
9 


Colon, 


a 
• 


Period, 


e 


Interrogation point, 


1 


Exclamation point, 


? 



( ) 
[] 

A 



Dash, 

Curves, 

Brackets, 

Quotation marks, 

Caret, 

Hyphen, 

THE COMMA. 

A couplet is an element composed of two co-ordinate 
parts, called terms. 

Ex. — He saw lions and tigers. 

The terms of a couplet are not separated, except — 

i. When the conjunction is omitted : 

Ex. — Large, round apples grow on the vigorous, young tree. 

2. When the terms are equivalent or identical : 

Ex. — Pie mourns the loss of vision, or sight. Hear the tolling of 
the bells, bells. 

3. When the terms are contrasted, or emphatically dis- 
tinguished : 

Ex. — There is water, but no bread. The master was severe, but 
just. 

Review. — Page 154. — Can the person of a relative be decided by 
its form ? Can the person of a personal ? 155. Define interroga- 
tive pronouns. Give an example. Name the interrogatives. Are 
the antecedents of relatives expressed ? 

273 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. When one term is modified by an element not be- 
longing to the other : 

Ex. — He ran, and lifted up the child. 

5. When one or both are so modified as to be lengthy : 
Ex. — The picture that the artist painted when in Italy, and the 

bust by Akers, are on exhibition. 

A series is an element composed of three or more 
co-ordinate terms : 

Ex. — Paper, rubber, pencils and rules are for sale. 

All the terms of a series are separated by a comma, 
except the last two when joined by a conjunction : 

Ex. — Lath, plaster, nails and screws were ordered by the builder. 

(Many good writers use the comma when the conjunction joins 
the last two.) 

As a general rule, the last term of a couplet or of a 
series should not be separated from the remainder of a 
sentence. 

Exceptions — When the terms of a couplet or of a series are iden- 
tical, equivalent, emphatically distinguished, contrasted or lengthy : 

Ex. — The fever patients wanted water, water, water, all day long. 
The pericardium, or heart case, is attached to the great blood vessels. 
It is work, not money, that the man craves. He will come to-day, 
to-morrcw, or next week, to remain a month. Apples from the old 
orchard on the hill, and grapes from the stone wall by the lane, 
recall the days of long ago. 

ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

i. An adjective proposition, unabridged or abridged, 
used as an essential identifier, is followed, but not pre- 
ceded, by a comma. 

2. If explanatory, but not necessary, a comma precedes 
and follows it : 



Review. — Page 155. — Are the antecedents of interrogatives ex- 
pressed ? Where, if at all, are the antecedents found ? 156. Give 
the order of parsing interrogative pronouns. 157. Define .an ad- 
jective pronoun. Illustrate. Name the adjective pronouns. 



PUNCTUATION. 275 

Ex.— John, the blacksmith, is the man for the office. The box, 
that contained my tools, was lost. John, the village blacksmith, is 
strong. 

3. An essential element that belongs equally to two or 
more words, should be set off by commas : 

Ex.— The books, the pictures, the statuary, that were bought in 
Europe, were all lost. 

OBJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 

As a rule, the objective element should not be sepa- 
rated from the word to which it belongs. Exceptions — 

1. When a direct quotation is used, it should be sepa- 
rated by commas, and enclosed by quotation marks : 

Ex.— The invalid looked up, and said, "Thank you, Jenny," and 
then closed her eyes. 

Many good writers separate the quotation from the 
word to which it belongs by a colon : 

Ex.-— Like Luther, he said : "Here I stand ; God help me ; I can 
do nothing else." 

2. When the attributive of the double object is made 
emphatic, it should be separated from the first object by 
a comma ' 

Ex.— The boy was reproved for pronouncing been, ben. 

ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS. 

Most adverbial elements, when arranged in their natural 
order, and when closely connected, are not set off by 
commas : 

Ex. — You are taller than James. He drove rapidly down the hill. 

Loosely connected adverbial elements, such as however, 

Review, — Page 159. — Define adjective. 160. What are the 
great classes of adjectives ? Define qualifying adjectives. Illustrate. 
Define limiting adjectives. Illustrate. How are limiting and quali- 
fying adjectives alike ? Name ten ideas expressed by qualifying 
adjectives. 



276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

in truth, verily, on the contrary, &c, should be set off by 
commas : 

Ex. — He said, if I mistake not, that no one was saved. This 
flower, in fact, is too difficult for me to analyze. 

Transposed adverbial elements, unless they are very 
short and have a very close connection, are set off by 
commas : 

Ex. — When the frosts come, this disease will disappear. Soon, 
soon, before you are ready, the messenger will come. 

Adverbial clauses, wherever placed, are separated from 
the word to which they belong, unless introduced by some 
word that makes the connection close, such as than, 
so — that, such — as, &c. : 

Ex. — I shall return to school, for my mother desires it. 

SUBJECT. 

As a general rule, the subject should not be separated 
from the predicate. Exceptions — 
1 When the subject is a proposition : 
Ex, — Who was the author of the poem, has not been ascertained. 

2. When the subject is modified by a proposition : 
Ex.— He who praises himself, will, probably, be blamed by others. 

3. When many modifiers are between the subject and 
the verb : 

Ex.-— Birds from Australia, from the central parts of Asia, and 
from the southern parts of the United States, can be seen at the 
museum. 

PREDICATE. 

Asa rule, the attributive part is not separated from the 
copula. 



Review. — Page 161. — Define numeral adjectives. Give the sub- 
classes of numerals. Define and illustrate cardinals • ordinals ; 
multiplicative; indefinite. 162, What adjectives are called articles? 
When is a used instead of an ? When is an used instead of a? 



PUNCTUATION. 277 

When the attributive part is a proposition, it should be 
separated : 

Ex.— The decision was, that the boat must sail as soon as pro- 
visions could be procured. 

Independent elements should be followed by the comma: 
Ex. — Henry, come here. Alas, poor John is dead. Green's 
Grammar, first edition. 

When the independent element expresses emotion, an 
exclamation mark should follow it : 
Ex. — Poor John ' alas, he is dead. 

The comma may show the omission of words, particu- 
larly of the verb, in short, closely connected clauses, and 
when the clauses are separated by the semicolon : 

Ex. — We went to Vermont ; John, to New York : Henry, to Cali- 
fornia. 

When the connection is close, yes and no are pointed 
off by the comma ; when not close, the semicolon or the 
colon is used : 

Ex. — Yes, we are well. " No": said the obstinate child. 

The comma should separate the parts of a date : 
Ex.— Richmond, Ya., June 9th, 1873. 

The comma should separate the parts o* an address 
Ex.— Miss G Hubbard, 

31 Washington St. 

SEMICOLON. 

1 The semicolon precedes words used to introduce 
examples. 

2. It is used to separate co-ordinate clauses when com- 
mas are in the clauses, and when the connection is not 
close 

Review. — Page 162. — Which articles are never used with plural 
nouns ? What article may be used with nouns of. either number ? 
Illustrate. What is meant by a 
a word of euphony ? Illustrate. 



2j8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — We read History ; Charles, Philosophy ; John, Mathematics. 
Poor punctuation is a bad fault ; but it can be corrected. 

COLON. 

i. The colon is used after the words, as follows, the 
following, thus, these, &c. : 

Ex. — The address was as follows : Ho used this language : 

2. After a formal, direct address : 

Ex. — Honorable Sir : 

3- It is frequently used to separate a direct quotation, 
used as an objective element, from the word to which it 
belongs : 

Ex. — The man said : " Can you direct me to Gould's store ? " 

PERIOD. 

The period is used to close declarative and imperative 
sentences ; at the close of abbreviations and titles* ; after 
words standing alone ; after any word or phrase complete 
in itself; after letters or figures that enumerate parts : 

Ex. — Horses are useful. Mr. Smith, attend to the work. The 
old man of the mountain. Write a sentence that contains a 
noun ; one containing an adjective. I have two objections ; 1. I am 
not strong ; 2. I have no money. 

INTERROGATION MARK. 

An interrogation mark is used after an interrogative 
sentence ; after an interrogative quotation, wherever 
used ; after each part of an interrogative sentence that 
requires a distinct answer ; and sometimes after a ques- 
tionable word or phrase : 

*Note. — In this case it is mere correct to call the mark a mark of abbrevia- 
ion, or abbreviation mark. 

Review. — Page 163. — Define pronominal adjectives. Name the 
hief pronominal adjectives. What does both indicate ? What does 
•verat? many? own? each and every ? stick? either? one another? 
:ch other? 



PUNCTUATION. 279 

Ex. — Who are you? "Will you go?" said he, "or shall I ask 
James ? " My wife has a beautiful ( ?) fashionable hat. 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The exclamation point is used after a word, phrase, 
proposition or sentence, that indicates great surprise, 
grief, joy, or other emotion : 

Ex. — Oh ! let soft pity touch the mind ! Such a twitter and 
chirp ! Out upon them ! 

THE DASH. 

The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an 
unexpected change in thought or style, or where a sen- 
tence is left unfinished : 

Ex. — He sometimes threshed his grain, and sometimes his — wife. 
Have you so much kindness for — yourself ? Has the old lady come 
to — 

CURVES. 

Curves are used to inclose a remark that does not form 
a necessary part of the sentence, but is explanatory : 

Ex. — He is going to play (but much against his desire) in the 
match game. 

The dash is used more frequently than the curves. 

BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to inclose a word or remark used to 
supply a deficiency, to guard against an error, and by way 
of comment : 

Ex. — They [those of whom we spoke] will attempt every de- 
ception. This habit [smoking] consumes enough money to clothe 
every poor child in the city. 

QUOTATION MARKS. 

Quotation marks are used to inclose the exact word or 



Review. — Page 164. — Give the rule for the employment of an 
article when several adjectives describe one thing. When is the 
article repeated ? Illustrate these i-ules by four examples. 165. Write 
the classification of adjectives on the blackboard, 



2S0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

words of another. A quotation within a quotation is 
inclosed by single quotation marks : 

Ex. — " I rise for information," said a member of Congress. " Says 
you, ' Peggotty ! Barkis is a waitin' for a answer. Says she, perhaps, 
'Answer to what? ' Says you, ' To what I told you.' ' What is that?' 
says she. ' Barkis is willin',' says you." 

The caret is used to show that some letter, word or 
phrase has been omitted : 

nearly i 

Ex. — I am through with ths work. 

A A 

The hyphen is used to separate the parts of a compound 
word ; and it is used at the close of a syllable that ends 
a line, when the rest of the word must be written on the 
next line : 

Ex. — Our baby is a fat, healthy ten-year-old fellow, with beauti- 
ful black eyes. 

The underscore is drawn under words in writing, to 
show that they are to be printed in italics or capitals : 
Ex. — His great want was money, money. 

Punctuate the following, giving the rules : 

This wise cool and upright woman was able to govern 
herself as well as others. My child be true to your sense of 
duty. Yes Ive never seen nobler more generous men 
women and children. Fanny the black pony died July 
24 187 1. No just but not cruel. He who would teach 
must first be taught. The house that is set on a hill 
cannot be hidden. Do not call John Jack. While the 
world lasts some will lead others be led. If you go I 
stay. That he will not go is certain. The old city fur- 



Review, — Page 167. — Define comparison of adjectives. From 
what does comparison of adjectives spring? How many degrees of 
comparison in adjectives ? How many degrees of quality are there? 
Why are only three degrees represented by adjectives ? 



PUNCTUATION. 2S1 

nishes bells but no belle. The only hope was that the 
father would hear the cry. Here all was confusion there 
order. What pleases the child may displease the man. 
Well well so you have come. His reply was march at 
once. The ship Phil Sheridan a vessel under Capt. Jones 
sailed from Davenport the ist of May 1876. Bang bang 
went the guns till it seemed to us inexperienced fellows 
that the battle would be ended in an hour. 

But his conscience was a peculiarly tender one and he 
stopped to listen to its voice. It cried in disturbing 
tones Tell not a lie Tell not a lie. These words burned 
in his heart. Joy kindred home all were forgotten. 

Have you given us all cried the robber chief threaten- 
ingly have you no more money ? 

Oh Alice exclaimed Basil with tears in his eyes I never 
thought of all that no I would not ruin my poor poor 
precious Charley for all the world. 

She was a moving millinery shop said James interrupt- 
ing me. 

Is it possible that he is but why borrow trouble. It 
comes fast enough. 

I know Mr. Webster has on various occasions intimated 
that this is not statesmanship in the U S that the cotton 
mills of Lowell the schooners of Cape Cod the coasters 
of Marblehead the coal and iron mines of Penn and the 
business of Wall Street are the great interests that this 
Government is framed to protect. 

The idea of liberty is the great fundamental principle 
of this spot that a man is worth more than a bank vault 
Loud cheers 



Review. — Page 167. — Name the degrees of comparison. Define 
and illustrate the positive degree. 168. Define and illustrate the 
comparative degree. Define and illustrate the superlative degree. 
What is the rule for comparing most adjectives of one syllable ? 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

And besides what a wanton and gratuitous insult it was 

nd the old chief as we loved to call him made himself 
by timid servility party to the insult and the degradation 
How truly American 

Princes have courtiers and merchants have partne. 
the voluptuous have companions the wicked have accom- 
plices none but the virtuous have friends 

A noun is a name as Mary tree &c 

On Nov 7 1837 Rev E P Lovejoy was shot by a mob 
in Alton Illinois while attempting to defend his printing 
press from destruction 

Mr Chairman We have met for the freest discussion 
of this question 

You say Why not end the war We cannot Jefferson 
said of slavery We have got the wolf by the ears we can 
neither hold him nor let him go That was his figure 
We have now got the South this wolf by the ears we must 
hold her we cannot let her go There is no peace on this 
continent as I believe till these thirty states are united 

Sir when I heard the gentleman lay down principles 
which place the murderers of Alton side by side with Otis 
and Hancock with Quincy and Adams I thought those 
pictured lips pointing to the portraits in the Hall would 
have broken into voice to rebuke the recreant American 
the slanderer of the dead Great applause and counter 
applause 

A lady should be as to her dress modest pretty sensible 
as to her behavior dignified graceful self-forgetful 
as to her motives pure benevolent aspiring And what is 
true of a lady is equally true of a gentleman 

Review. — Page 168. — What is the rule for comparing adjectives 
of more than one syllable ? Illustrate. When are adjectives said 
to be compared irregularly? Name adjectives that have neither 
positive nor superlative. 




FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 

Instead of language that is literal, that is, which is to 
be taken according to the strict meaning of the words, we 
may use pictorial, or figurative, language, which often 
expresses ideas with greater force. A figure is a devia- 
tion from literal language : 

Ex. — He is a wolf in sheep's clothing; literally, He is a hypocrite. 
Our friend is at the noon of life; i. e., middle aged. The drunkard 
is fond of his cups; i. e., wine, brandy, &c. At last it (wine) biteth 
like a serpent, and stingcth like an adder. The kettle boils. The sun 
kisses the clouds till they blush* The conscious water saw its God 
and blushed. He is a fount of wisdom. A shade of sadness. While 
the hungry waves were warring and the breakers talked of death. 

Change the following figurative sentences to plain or literal ones : 

The Lord feeds, guides and protects me. Our tea is bread and 
milk. The wings of the ship bore her softly away. The Lord is ray 
shepherd. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. He 
leadeth me beside the still waters. Whenever you speak, hit the 
nail on the head. He is a perfect owl. The fellow is a lion. The 
trees are rich with October. A rolling stone gathers no moss. How 
great a fire a little matter kindleth. Hope is an anchor to the soul. 
Night her sable mantle over all things throws. The path of the 
conqueror is stained with blood. Money makes the mare go, 

" And the night shall he filled with music, 
And the cares that infest the day- 
Shall fold up their tents like the Arabs, 
And as silently steal away." 

Reason melts in the fire of passion. She is like an April day. 
Jack Frost has made a midnight meal of our apples. He has a silver 

Review. — Page 170. — What adjectives are not compared? With 
what and in what must numeral adjectives agree? Illustrate. 
171. Give the order of parsing adjectives. 174. Define a verb. 
What may verbs affirm ? Illustrate, ~ 



284 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tongue, but a heart of steel. That boy is a diamond in the rough. 
Shall the Fultons say to the Raphaels, " Because you cannot make 
steam-engines, you shall not vote?" Napoleon made his way to 
empire over broken oaths and through a sea of blood. Read with 
your eyes, not with your prejudices. Fifty years hence, when Truth 
gets a hearing, the Muse of History v/ill put Washington as the 
bright, consummate flower of our earlier civilization ; and John Brown 
the ripe fruit of our noonday. — W. Phillips. 

Change the literal sentences to figurative : 

This son will be a support to you when you are old. (This son 
will be the staff of your age.) A spirit of rebellion is growing among 
the slaves. He drank the poison that caused his death. Peace was 
offered to them. He is a sneak. Will you not come at sunset to 
weep over my grave ? If you wander you will not prosper. There 
are no pleasures without pains outside heaven. Will he ever receive 
a recompense for all his toil ? His powers are increasing. He will 
soon die. 

Do not use figures when plain language is more suitable: 

Ex. — He is fainting ! dash in his face a little of the wine distilled 

in Nature's laboratory ; i. e., dash water in his face. The fleeing 

slave slept while the god of day was present, and traveled while 

Luna smiled upon the world ; i. e., slept by day and traveled by night. 

Figures should be suitable and not improperly mixed 
with plain language : 

Ex. — The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. Death 
touched her veins with ice, and the rose faded. 

Why are the following wrong ? Correct them. 

When a fly is caught in a spider's web, all his efforts rivet his 
chains. (Why use a figure ? Why call threads chains?) If the 
young sow the seeds of crime, they will be punished when old. (If 
they sow, they will reap.) My plans are budding ; soon the machine 
will be before the world. Beauty and the deformed persons were 
present. This friend is an anchor to which my eyes are continually 
uplifted. (What is the use of an anchor ?) We will take Time by 



Review. — Page 174. — Define copulative verb. Name the chief 
copulative verbs. What is an attributive verb ? Illustrate by six 
examples. 175. In deciding to what part of speech a word belongs, 
what besides its form must be considered ? Illustrate by examples. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 285 

the forelock and get up by sunrise, (Mixed.) My thought flew to 
my darling, like an eagle (with evil intent) upon his p:ey. Afire 
was kindled in my heart, but it was soon blasted. As a torrent rushes 
to the sea, so he moved steadily upward till he was respected by all. 
My blossoming hope sings, and soon, soon she will burst into a rain- 
bow of strength. (Do blossoms sing ? Are rainbows formed by 
bursting blossoms ? Are they emblems of strength ?) 

What is a good emblem of hope? timidity? strength? courage? 
hypocrisy? restlessness ? 



Winona is a city, or large village, in the southeastern part of 
Minnesota. It is built upon a sandy plain that lies between the 
Mississippi river and a small body of water called Lake Winona. 
During part of the year, the river and lake are connected by two 
streams, which makes the plain an island. Many years ago, when 
the Mississippi was larger than it is now, it was, probably, an island 
the whole year round. 

Though situated on a plain, Winona is in the midst of hills. 
Bluffs rise abruptly from the Wisconsin bank of the river and from 
the shores of the lake, completely shutting in the town. Their names, 
Castle Rock, Sugar Loaf, Hog's Back, &c, give hints of their forms. 
Were it not for these beautiful bluffs, the city would be monotonous 
in the extreme ; as it is, the eye can always find pleasing variety. 

The town was settled about twenty years ago by Eastern people 
who wished to find a good location for a city. They examined the 
surrounding country ; found the soil rich, the surface rolling and 
water in abundance. The bank of the river afforded a fine levee for 
landing, unloading and loading boats. Therefore, these shrewd men 
thought this a place fit to become a commercial city, from which 
would be shipped the grains destined to be raised on the farms, and 
to which would be brought all kinds of merchandise needed for the 
farming population. 

This sandy tract was laid out in squares ; emigrants arrived ; 
speculators bought and sold ; houses were built ; trees were planted 

Review. — Page 176. — What are the divisions of time ? How 
long are the past and future ? Prove it. How long is the present ? 
What does each act, existence, state and possession require ? What 
affirm acts, &c. ? What ought verbs to represent? "Why? 



286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

(there was but one when the settlement began) ; and soon Winona 
prairie became Winona city. 

Now, railroads connect it to important points East and West ; 
churches of every denomination invite the worshiper; a Normal 
school building, one of the grandest in the country, lifts its beautiful 
proportions in the heart of the town ; and the blessed trees are so 
thick as to make Winona seem, to one looking down upon it from 
the bluffs, like a Garden of Eden. 

Study the above. Observe the place of the title. The principal 
words of titles should begin with capitals. The first four sentences 
show that the writer was thinking of the plain upon which Winona 
is situated. The next four indicate a change in the direction of 
thought from the plain to its surroundings. The next three indicate 
a change from what to what ? Where does the third change begin ? 
It is a change to what? Is there another change in the direction of 
thought ? If so, where does it begin ? 

Arranging all the above sentences according to the direction of 
thought, how many groups have you ? Is there anything to show 
that the writer thus grouped the sentences ? What shows it ? 

A sentence, or a group of sentences, that shows that the 
writer's thought is in one direction, is a paragraph. 
To indicate to the eye a change in the direction of thought, 
each paragraph should be indented. To indent a para- 
graph is to write its first word farther to the right than 
the first word of the following line. The first paragraph 
should also be indented. 

From the description of AVinona, you will see that sentences that 
describe one part of a subject should form a paragraph. If many 
sentences relate to one subject, or to a particular part of a subject, 
they may be arranged, for the purpose of affording rest, in two or 
more paragraphs. This is particularly true of books designed for 
children and for reading classes. 

Write the title of and propeily paragraph the following : 

In selecting the furniture of parlors, some reference should be had 

Review. — Page 177. — Define tense. What are the three chief 
tenses? What verbs are of the present tense? Illustrate. What 
verbs are of the past tense ? Illustrate. What verbs are of the 
future tense? Illustrate. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 2o] 

to correspondence of shades and colors. Curtains should be darker 
than the walls ; and, if the walls and carpets be light, the chairs 
should be dark, and vice versa. Pictures always look best on light 
walls. In selecting carpets for rooms much used, it is poor economy 
to buy cheap ones. Ingrain carpets, of close texture, and the three- 
ply carpets, are best for common use. Brussels carpets do not wear 
so long as the three-ply ones, because they cannot be turned. Wilton 
carpets wear badly, and Venetians are good only for halls and stairs. 
In selecting colors, avoid those in which there are any black threads, 
as they are usually rotten. The most tasteful carpets are those which 
are made of various shades of the same color, or of all shades of only 
two colors; such as brown and yellow, or blue and buff, or salmon 
and green, or all shades of green, or of brown. All very dark shades 
should be brown or green, but not black. In laying down carpets, it 
is a bad practice to put straw under them, as it makes them wear out 
in spots. Straw matting, laid under carpets, makes them last much 
longer, as it is smooth and even, and the dust sifts through it. — Miss 
Catherine E. Beecher's Housekeeper and Healthkeeper. 

Benjamin Franklin. 
Franklin" was born at Boston, Jan., 1706. His wisdom, prudence 
and honesty won for him the esteem of his countrymen. He was of 
medium height, well formed and strongly built. He left numerous 
works. He was the youngest of seventeen children. But he became 
tired of work in the shop, and was, therefore, apprenticed to his 
brother, who was a printer. He was the first to discover the identity 
of lightning and electricity. His manners were affable and engag- 
ing. When only ten, he worked in his father's shop, cutting nicks 
and running on errands. He worked as a journeyman printer in 
Philadelphia one year ; then he went to England to buy type and 
other materials to begin business for himself ; but those that promised 
to help him failed to do so, and he returned to America without his 
type, He was fond of reading, and became a wise man. He was 
one of five chosen by the Second Continental Congress to draw up 
the Declaration of Independence. He was i-emarkable for simplicity 
of character and practical common sense. He was very observing, 



Review. — Page 178. — Define auxiliary verbs. Define principal 
verbs. Illustrate. What are the auxiliaries of the future tense ? 
Why are perfect tenses necessary ? Name the perfect tenses. Why 
are there three perfect tenses ? 



288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

learning something from all he saw. Among his works is an instruc- 
tive autobiography of the early part of his life, extending to his 
fifty-second year. But the brothers could not agree, and when 
Benjamin was seventeen he ran away to Philadelphia. He secured 
the alliance of France during the Revolutionary War. He was 
interested in scientific matters. He died in 1790, aged eighty-four. 
In the above description, sentences that tell of Franklin's youth 
are widely separated. Those that describe his appearance and 
manners should form a paragraph, instead of being scattered. It is 
evident the writer had no plan. Had he settled first what points 
he wished to write about, and then put all he had to say on each 
point in one paragraph, or in adjoining paragraphs, his work would 
be much better. Re-arrange and paragraph these sentences under 
the following heads : 

1. Early life ; birth, occupation, habits of reading, &c. 

2. Manhood ; mental and moral attributes, things accomplished, 

offices filled, &c. 

3. Personal appearance, manners, &c. 

4. Death. 

Having arranged the sentences, add, change or omit, 'such words 
as may be required to make a smooth, pleasing composition. 

Under similar heads, write brief sketches of Washington, Lin- 
coln, Florence Nightingale, Bonaparte, Gen. Grant, Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, Jefferson Davis, or any other distinguished person of whom 
you know, or of whom you have read.* 

*Note. — The teacher may assign one of the above subjects to the class, sug- 
gest books in which information may be found, and persons who are able and may- 
be willing to answer questions. The time of the next recitation should be spent 
in telling, orally, what the pupils have found under one head, the teacher writing 
the matter on the black-board as given. This matter should be properly arranged 
by the teacher at the suggestions of the class. The matter for the next paragraph, 
having been given as before, may be arranged by the pupils — different ones read- 
ing their results, and all criticising. This method prepares the way for more 
independent work to-morrow. The teacher will, of course, lead pupils to recall 
what has been previously learned with regard to simplicity, directness, elegance 
of style and methods of punctuation. 



Review. — Page 178. — What verbs are in the present-perfect 
tense? Give example. What verbs are in the past-perfect tense ? 
Give example. What verbs are in the future-perfect tense. Give 
example. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 289 

The following outlines, and those in " Lessons in Language," will 
be helps in writing compositions; but the special topics recommend- 
ed may be changed to suit the circumstances of the pupils. Those 
subjects should be chosen that are of present interest. Botany, 
Geography, History, every study considered, should be made to fur- 
nish material for compositions. Descriptions of countries, ways of 
reaching them, their vegetable, animal and mineral products, their 
inhabitants, causes of wars, accounts of battles, histories of states- 
men and soldiers — naturally grow out of these studies. A menagerie 
visited, a journey taken, a boat built, a building erected, a house or 
city burned, a destructive storm, a match game of ball, the visit of 
a distinguished foreigner, a celebrated lecturer, the breaking of a 
colt, a robbery in town, the death of a friend, an ostrich feather, a 
silk dress, a box of figs, a cane fish-pole — anything that is of living 
interest may be made the subject of a composition. 

I. Outline of description of house you live in. 

1. Where situated, on what street, on high or low ground, 
trees and other surroundings, 

2. Size, material, form, porches, towers, &c. 

3. Rooms, their arrangements, outlooks, &c. Your own room 
particularly described, furniture, &c, 

4. Method of heating. 

II. Description of a friend. 

1. Appearance, size, features, complexion, age, dress. 

2. Disposition, morals, education. 

3. Habits, time of rising and retiring, work, play, aim in life. 

4. Past history. 

III. Sketch of own life. 

1. When and where born. 

2. Short description of parents. 

3. Where you have lived. 

4. What done. 

5. What remarkable things have happened to you. 

6. What you hope to become, and why. 



Review. — Page 179. — What are the auxiliaries of the present- 
perfect? What are the auxiliaries of the past-perfect ? What are 
the auxiliaries of the future-perfect ? 180. When have, has or had 
is used as a principal verb, what does it indicate ? 



29° ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

IV. Description of a journey. 

1. Time and place of starting, and destination. 

2. Mode of travel, car, boat, stage, &c. 

3. Countries passed through, level, hilly, cultivated. 

4. Objects of interest seen, persons, animals, flowers, trees. 

5. Place reached and briefly described. 

V. Description of a class of animals. 

In what country the class first found ; kinds ; parts, with des- 
cription ; where live ; food, and how gotten ; how reared ; 
habits ; length of life ; uses to man. 

Describe the horse, sheep, cow, elephant, fox — any other animal 
in which you have an interest. 

VI. A class of birds. 

In what country found ; kinds ; parts, with description ; local- 
ity frequented by ; habits ; food, how gotten ; nests ; eggs ; 
young ; length of life ; songs ; flying ; advantages and dis- 
advantages to man. 

Describe the dove, hen, ostrich, robin, duck, canary, crow, or 
other bird you like better. 

VII. Cities and countries, 

1. Situation, boundary. 

2. Extent and population. 

3. Appearance and surroundings, 

4. Public buildings and noted objects. Inhabitants ; nativity, 
character, occupation, &c. 

Describe the city or town in which you live. Describe the 
State, 

VIII. Fruit. 

Appearance ; size, color, form ; parts ; where grown ; cultiva- 
tion ; preservation ; uses. Describe oranges, apples, figs, 
dates, raisins. 

Many questions may be viewed from two sides — an affirmative 
and a negative. The affirmative arguments should be considered 
first ; the negative, second. 



Review. — Page 180. — What are the principal parts of a verb ? 
Why are they so called ? How are the perfect tenses formed. De- 
fine regular verbs. Illustrate. Define irregular verbs. Illustrate. 
184. Define redundant verbs. Give example. Define defective 
verbs. Give example. 



FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 29 I 

Ex. — Should a boy or girl enter school at five years of age and 
remain till twenty ? 

Affirmative. — Habits of study should be formed early. Great 
discipline is required at school. Knowledge is systematically gained. 
Constant association with mates is an advantage. Healthful emula- 
tion is excited. Better prepared for life. So much to learn that we 
cannot begin too early, nor continue too long. Should be able to 
grasp difficult subjects before leaving school. 

Negative. — Children need a free, out-door life, that their bodies 
may be strong and vigorous. In school, they are exposed to bad air 
and bad associates ; acquire stooping figures. Knowledge gained in 
school is frequently not practical. Children who are always with 
companions do not learn to depend upon themselves. A distaste for 
and ignorance of domestic and out-door duties is likely to follow one 
who is confined to school. He does not know how to meet the world 
as it exists outside of books ; is theoretical, but not practical. 
Write upon the affirmative and the negative of the following : 

Should girls' sports be like boys' ? 

Is farming the most independent life ? 

Are cars more useful than ships ? 

Is the country to be preferred to the city ? 

Should tobacco be cultivated ? 

Should foreign emigration be encouraged? 
Pupils may suggest questions for discussion ; one-half of the class 
discuss the affirmative ; the other, the negative. 

A fable is a feigned story intended usually to instruct : 
Ex. — A kid, being mounted upon the roof of a shed, and seeing 
a wolf below, loaded him with all manner of reproaches. Upon 
which the wolf, looking up, replied, " Do not value yourself, vain 
creature, upon thinking you mortify me ; for I look upon this ill 
language as not coming from you, but from the place which protects 
you. 

This fable may be intended to show the disposition of weak, mean 
persons to abuse those who are less favorably situated. It instructs 



Review. — Page 186. — What are transitive acts ? Name six. 
What are intransitive acts ? Name six. Transitive acts necessitate 
how many parties ? Possessions necessitate how many parties ? 
Define a transitive verb. Give examples. Define an intransitive 
verb, Give examples. 



292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

us to regard with indifference the words and acts of those whom 
fortune, not worth, has placed above us. Or, it may show the ten- 
dency of cowards to abuse those that have no means of retaliation. 

Teacher may select some fables and have pupils write the lessons 
conveyed by them. 

Write fables to illustrate the following subjects : 
A rolling stone gathers no moss. 
Never too late to mend. 
The early bird catches the worm. 
All is not gold that glitters. 
Many a little makes a mickle. 
Those that dance must pay the fiddler. 
Birds of a feather flock ether. 
Look before you leap. 
It's an ill wind that blows nobody good. 
A burnt child dreads the fire. 
Change to prose the following poems : 
Barbary Frietchie, by J G. Whittier. 
The Children's Hour, by H. *W\ Longfellow. 
Young Lochinvar, by Sir Walter Scott. 
We are Seven, by Wm. Wordsworth. 
Read the following selections very carefully ; then reproduce 
them in your own language : 

I well remember my first sight of White Island, where we took up 
our abode on leaving the mainland. I was scarcely five years old ; 
but from the upper windows of our dwelling in Portsmouth, I had 
been shown the clustered masts of ships, lying at the wharves along 
the Piscataqua River, faintly outlined against the sky, and, baby as I 
was, even then I was drawn, with a vague longing, seaward. How 
delightful was that long, first sail to the Isles of Shoals ! How 
pleasant the unaccustomed sound of the incessant ripple against the 
boat side, the sight of the wide water and limitless sky, the warmth 
of the broad sunshine that made us blink like young sand-pipers as 
we sat in triumph, perched among the household goods with which 
the little craft was laden ! It was at sunset that we were set ashore 
on that loneliest, lovely rock, where the lighthouse looked down on 
ns like some tall, black-capped giant, and filled me with awe and 
wonder, — Celia Thaxicr. 

:e other selections. 



LETTER WRITING, 

No branch of composition is more important than letter 
writing. Nearly all are required, sometime in their lives, 
to write letters ; other forms of written composition are 
demanded of few, comparatively. No pupil should leave 
school, thinking himself prepared for any business, no 
matter how simple, without being able to write a neat, 
correct letter. 

The great classes of letters are, letters of business and 
letters of friendship. Letters of business should be clear 
and brief; those of friendship, clear, conversational and 
strong. 

The parts of a letter are — 

i. The superscription) which consists of the place, the 
date and the introductory address ; 

2. The body, which should contain all the writer wishes 
to say to the one to whom he writes. If a part be for- 
gotten, it may be added as a postscript, although this is 
not desirable ; 

3. The subscription, which consists of an expression of 
regard and of the signature, or name, of the writer ; 

4. The address, which is written on the envelope, and 
should consist of the name and title of the one to 
whom the letter is written, and of his place of residence 
so definitely given that the letter will reach him. 



Review. — rage 188. In what way should one decide whether a 
verb is transitive or intransitive ? Name intransitive and transitive 
verbs that have the same form. Define the direct object of a verb or 
verbal word. When do verbs usually intransitive become transitive? 

293 



294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Read the superscription, the body and the subscription of the 
following : 

New Haven, Conn., Sept. 12, 1878. 
My Dear Father : 

I am happy to tell you that my employers have 
granted me a month's vacation, which I shall spend at home. I write 
to ask if you and old Charley can meet me at Granby Station, next 
Wednesday at 5 o'clock, P. M. Your affectionate son, 

William W. Clemons. 

The place of residence should be so definitely given in the super- 
scription, that it, with the signature, will form the address. 

There should be a correspondence between the introductory ad- 
dress and the closing expression of regard ; if the first be formal, the 
second should be ; if the former be familiar or affectionate, the latter 
should be. Ex. — My dear sir ; Yours' respectfully. My dear Niece ; 
Your aged and affectionate Aunt. My dear John ; Yours faithfully* 
Dearest Mother ; Your loving Annie. Sir; Yours. Honored Sir; 
With great respect. My precious Child ; Your loving Mother. 

Mr., Mrs., and Miss, are respectable titles, but if the person ad- 
dressed have a profession, the title indicating it should be used ; as, 
Rev., Dr., Gen., Supt. In addressing lawyers, and other men of 
scholarly acquirements, Esq. may be used instead of Mr. Hon. is a 
title given to senators, representatives, mayors, judges, and others of 
similar rank. His Excellency is applied to the President of the United 
States, and to the Governor of a State. 

Two titles, implying the same rank, should not be used with one 
name ; as Dr. J. B. McGaughcy, M.D, Two titles, implying different 
ranks, may be used with one name ; as The Hon, Dr. McMasters. 

The correspondence, arrangement and punctuation of superscrip- 
tion, subscription and address, can be learned by studying the fol- 
lowing : 



Review. —Page 188. — What is meant by the indirect object of a 
verb? What parts of speech, besides verbs, may be limited by indi- 
rect objects ? Illustrate fully by examples. Name the verbs that 
have both direct and indirect objects. 



LETTER WRITING, 



295 



Dr. Mary Little — 

Dear Madam 



166 Chandler St., Boston, Mass., 
July 24, 1873. 



Gratefully yours, 

Emma L. Call ; 



Hon. Wm. Windom — 

Dear Sir : 



Winona, Minn., Jan. 1, '73. 



My Deat Sister ; 



Very respectfully, 

Wm. F. Phelps. 



Home, Saturday, May 24th, '64. 



Your faithful and loving brother, 
Dick, 



Davenport, Iowa, Oct. 10, 1871. 
To the Relief Committee of the City of Chicago : 
Ladies and Gentlemen — 

Very Respectfully, 

John P. Gould, 
Sec. of Relief Com. of Davenport, Iowa, 



Dr. Mary J. Safford, 
No. 4 Boylston Place, 

Boston, 

Mass. 



Hon. Wm. Windom, 

Washington City, 

Introducing Prof. J. P. Moore. D. C. 



Review. — Page 190. — What is meant by the term double object ? 
Why is the second object called the attributive object ? What parts 
of speech may form the attributive object? Name verbs that have 
double objects. 



Z'jJ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Mrs. A. L. Loveland Miss Annie L. Cowles, 

North Granby, At Home, 

Conn. Kindness of Miss Peck. 

The body of a letter may be formed of business matter ; or it may 
consist of pure narration, description, persuasion, &c. ; several of 
these are often found in one letter. In writing friendly letters, those 
subjects should be chosen that are most likely to interest, and, some- 
times, to instruct, the receiver. They should be written in an easy 
style, as if they were copies of talks. Most persons dislike to receive 
stilted letters — those that give evidence of great effort to say some- 
thing wonderful or fine. Write what you would say to a friend were 
he present ; and do not attempt to write when you have nothing to 
say. Do not show disrespect to an acquaintance bj sending a poorly 
written, badly spelled, blotted letter. As letters are frequently brought 
into ccurt as evidences of promises and demands, they should be 
written carefully, containing only those statements which the writer 
is willing to " stand by " ; this is particularly true of business letters. 

Study the following specimens : 

1. Letter from a little girl to her absent Mother : 

Home, Wednesday Evening. 
Dear Mother : 

There is only room for me to send my love, and some 
pressed pansies, from the root I have been keeping safe in the house, 
for Father to see. I read every morning, try to be good all day, and 
sing myself to sleep with Father's tune. I can't sing " Land o' the 
Leal" now ; it makes me cry. Every one is very kind, and we are 
as happy as we can be without you. Amy wants the rest of the page, 
so I must stop. I didn't forget to cover the holders, and I wind the 
clock and air the rooms every day. 

Kiss dear Father on the cheek he calls mine. Oh, do come soon. 
Your loving Little Bette. 



Review. — Page 194. — Define voice. Name the voices. Define 
and illustrate the active voice. Define and illustrate the passive 
voice. Define and illustrate the neuter voice. 195. What verb is 
necessary to the passive voice. Name the verbs used as passive aux- 
iliaries. 



LETTER WRITING, 297 

2. Letter from a friend 

Monday, June 23d, '73. 
Dear Mary : 

In yours of February, you don't say " write again,'' but 
I need not infer, I suppose, that you have objections, if the spirit 
moves : and it does this morning. We've been having bits of show- 
ers, soft, warm, straight-falling rain, full of the smell of hay and of 
roses. The clouds are drifting off the tops of the hills, great, soft, 
white masses ; behind them lies the sunshine, and that means hot 
weather. We've had so little this year that roses and lilies impress 
me as triumphs of faith. 

I am luxuriating in idleness. My chills are not cured, and keep 

me in a half invalid condition, which has its compensations. B 

is the most delicious bit of wilderness in the world. There never was 
anything like its sky, and sunshine, and green. To be sure, one gets 
a taste of premature interment here — a half uncertain sense as to 
where flesh leaves off and the state of ghostship begins — there is 
such a chance for shadows. I don't read much ; I hear no music. 
But the days are full of red and white clovei ; and that is enough. 
I believe the highest type of happiness is embodied in a bumblebee. 

Having known K at all, is a "liberal education," as some- 
body said of some one else. Having known her as I know her now, 
is enough to make any life worth living, even with only the mem- 
ory of the knowing. 

You spoke of having heard C on Dickens. Yes, shams are 

bad things ; but I am inclined to think that there is less humbug 
in the world than we fancy. I know ever so many people who are 

genuine ; but I don't think C is one of them. There never 

was such another polished, elegant, gentlemanly, exterior ; nobody 
else ever said such silver-sweet sentences ; but down at the heart of 
it all, there lies C for the motive. No man, I think, having him- 
self for a motive, can be quite sound and true. Why ! that's quite a 
little preach. I'm afraid I often get betrayed into it, when any one 
glorifies C overmuch. 

I can't ask you to take time from your multiplied engrossments to 



Review. — Page 197. — What class of verbs has the passive voice? 
Why are intransitive verbs never passive ? When an active verb is 
changed to the passive, what becomes of its subject ? What becomes 
its subject in the passfve ? 



290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

write to idle folks ; but if a letter comes, it will be most welcome 

Truly, 
Bristol, Conn. M. C. Ac 



3. Letter of introduction . 

West Wins ted, Conn., Sept. 12, 1872. 
Mr. H. E. Curtis, 

Cashier First National Bank, 
Winona, Minn. 

Dear Sir : The bearer, Mr. C, J. C, is a gentleman well known 
to me. He has had an honorable and successful business career 
in this town. His fine judgment, universal courtesy and wide 
benevolence have endeared him to all. Failing health induces him to 
move to Minn. Any courtesy you may extend, which will help make 
your city seem like a home to him, will be gratefully received by him, 
and appreciated by Yours Truly, 

F. A. R. 



4. Recommendations: 

The bearer, Hetty Sagor, has been an efficient, honest, polite ser- 
vant in my family for three years. I gladly recommend her to any 
one in need of house-help. Mrs. Geo. Wing, 

No. 14 Perry St., Davenport, Iowa. 



The bearer, Richard Rising, has taken a full course in the Com- 
mercial Department of the Buffalo Normal School. His proficiency 
and character are such that we cheerfully recommend him to anyone 
who is in need of a book keeper. H. H, Buckham, 

Prin. Buffalo Normal School. 



Review. — Page 199. — Define mode, Name the modes. What 
verbs are in the indicative mode ? Give examples. What verbs are 
in the potential mode ? Give examples. What verbs are in the 
subjunctive mode ? Give examples. What are the auxiliaries of the 
potential ? 



LETTER WRITING. 



299 



5. Applications : 

Rock Island, Ill.> Aug, 1, '73. 
Prof. W. E. Crosby, 

Supt. Davenport Schools. 
Sir : Having heard that a vacancy has occurred in Grammar 
School No. 3, I beg to offer myself as candidate for Principal.. En- 
closed are testimonials from well known educational ladies and gen- 
tlemen. Should these lead you to desire a personal interview, please 
inform me. Very Respectfully, 

Kate Berry. 



St. Paul, Minn., July 29, 1873. 
Prof. Phelps — 

Dear Teacher: I am about to move to California, hoping the climate 
may benefit me. Have I been sufficiently successful as a teacher to 
warrant your giving me a testimonial of ability to instruct and govern 
a primary school ? If so, please send it at your earliest convenience, 
as I start Aug. 10th. Gratefully Yours, 

Mattie C. Bunker. 



6, Invitation, reception and wedding card^ 



Miss Ross 

Requests the pleasure of your 
company at a Literary enter- 
tainment on Wednesday even- 
ing, Sept. 8, '73, at 8 o'clock. 



Mrs. James Hubbard, 

At Home, 
Saturday evening, Jan. 9, 1874, 

at 8 o'clock. 
No - 3*i 33d St, Chicago. 111. 



Mr. and Mrs. J. C. Camp, 

At Home, 
Thursday, 3 p. m., Sept. 18, 1871. 



JL'STA B. CAMP, 



I8I9. IS69. 

Mr. and Mrs. Vincent Youmans, 

At Home, 
Friday evening, Sept, lx, nt S o'clock. 



Review. — Page 200. — Of what mode is a verb that is found in that 
part of a sentence that expresses doubt or condition? What words 
usually precede verbs in the subjunctive mode, giving ideas of doubt 
or of condition. "When do the words if, though, &c, not indicate 
condition ? 



300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. Additional notes : 

Mrs. Wing requests the pleasure of Miss Scofield's company, on 
Saturday P. M., at four o'clock. 

Maple Hill, Thursday, May 1st. 



Miss Scofield accepts with pleasure Mrs. Wing's invitation for next 
Saturday P. M. 

Cottage Hill, Friday, May 2d. 



Miss Scofield regrets that previous engagements prevent her accep- 
tance of Mrs, Wing's invitation for next Saturday P. M. 
Cottage Hill, Friday, May 2d. 



Hadley Brothers, 

136 State St., Chicago, 111. 

Gentlemen — 

Enclosed I send $1.80 for three copies of Lessons in Lan- 
guage. Please forward immediately. 

Ellen Williams, 
Aug. 25, 1873. Northborough, Mass, 



Saturday, A. M., May 10, 1873, 
Dear Fanny „■ 

We are all going to Hunter's Hill this aftei-noon for 
wild flowers. Please join us at the ferry at 2 o'clock and make me 
happy. Yours, 

Molly. 



Review. — Page 200.— Define the imperative mode. What is the 
subject of a verb in the imperative mode ? How many and what are 
the tenses of the indicative mode? Give examples of each tense. 
201. When should the present indicative be used ? 



LETTER WRITING, 301 

In folding your letter for the envelope, if it be note paper, turn 
up the lower third of the sheet, and then turn down the upper third. 
If it be letter paper, turn up the lower half so as to make it even with 
the upper edge ; next turn in the right-hand third, and then the left- 
hand third. Press the folds firmly, that the sheet may be compact. 
Direct the letter as in the foregoing models. 

When might it be proper to omit the place of the wiiter ? What 
mark follows abbreviations ? When is — used after the compli- 
mentary address ? And when is : used ? When might the first 
name, or the initials, be used as signature? What qualities should 
characterize a business letter ? a friendly letter ? a telegram? What 
are the parts of a letter ? Define each. 

I. Write to your Mother. 1. Tell her of your arrival at your 
Grandmother's. 2. Narrate the important or interesting events of 
the journey. 3. The country and cities through which you passed. 
4. Your reception. 5. Health and appearance of Grandmother, 
6. Mention other members of the family. 7. The appearance of 
house and surroundings. 8. Your work and play, 9. Degree of 
contentment. 10. Messages to the ones at home. 11. End your 
letter by expression of regard. 

II. Apply for position in a store ; in school ; in shop ; in house ; 
on farm ; on boat. 

III. Write a letter of recommendation for a person as clerk, 
school-teacher, errand-boy, nurse-girl, writing-master. 

IV. Write four different invitation cards. 

V. Write a letter of invitation. 

VI. Write a letter of acceptance ; one of regret. 

VII. Write a homesick letter to your Mother. 

VIII. Write to the parents of a classmate, announcing his or her 
death. 1. The fact. 2. The attack of disease. 3. Means of cure, 
doctor, nurse, &c. 4. Progress of disease. 5. Death. 6. Feelings 
of sympathy expressed. 

IX. Write four telegrams. 

X. Write a purely descriptive letter. 

XI. Write a purely narrative letter. 



Review.— Page 201.— What may verbs of the present perfect 
indicative represent ? Illustrate, What are the tenses of verbs in 
the potential ? Give the signs of the past perfect potential. The 
signs of the past potential. Of the present potential. Of the present 
perfect potential. 



INDEX AND REVIEW. 

The following index is so arranged as to be used in 
making a thorough review of the topics treated or men- 
tioned in the volume. The numbers refer to pages. 

In many cases, sentences have been very much abbre- 
viated, for the purpose of saving space and of furnishing 
an opportunity to the pupil to expand them into complete 
sentences. Example — Qualifying adjective? means, define 
a qualifying adjective ; or, what is said of a qualifying 
adjective ? 

Adjectives. — Develope and define an adjective, 41, 42, 159. 
How do you decide to what object an adjective belongs ? 48. Rule 
for punctuation of a series of adjectives, 44. Adjective used with 
a copula, 54, Qualifying? 160, Limiting adjective? 160. How 
many and what classes of numeral adjectives? 161. Define a nume- 
ral adjective, 161. A, an and the? 162. Pronominal adjec- 
tives? 163. Use of article with adjectives? 164. Write diagram 
and review adjectives, 165. Comparison? 165, 166, 167. How 
many and what degrees? 167. Illustrate and define each, 167, 168. 
What is said of adjectives of irregular comparison? 169. Adjec- 
tives implying' number agree how with their nouns? 170. An adjec- 
tive used with a participle or an infinitive, &c, belongs to what? 223. 

Adverbs. — Develope and define, 62, 244. Adverbial elements 
arranged how ? 64. Classes of adverbs? 244, 245. Independent? 
246. Give rule for placing adverbs in a sentence, 247. Adverbs used 
to describe what ? 247. Conjunctive adverbs? 248. Adverbs com- 
pared how ? 249. Order of parsing, 250. . 

Acts. — Define and illustrate a transitive act, 186. Define and 
illustrate an intransitive act, 186. 

302 



INDEX AND REVIEW. 303 

Affirm. — With what meaning used ? 8. 

Analysis. — Define analysis, 28. Examples by diagram, 32, 33, 
35, 67. 68, 70, 76, 77. Rule for use of diagram, 33. Analysis of 
complex sentences, 76. Of compound sentences, 89. 

Auxiliaries. — Defined, 178. What ones harmonize best? 226. 

Attribute defined, 53. Attribute of predicate defined, 55. At- 
tributive verb defined, 56. 

Assume, explained, 45. Belong, explained, 25. 

Both, 163. Brackets, 279. 

Being and been are auxiliaries of what? 215. 

Caret, 280. Colon, 278. How used ? 

Case. — Various uses of nouns and pronouns in sentences, 128, 
130. Diagrams of uses, 128, 130, 134. Possession denoted^how? 130. 
Exceptions to this rule ? 130. Formation of possessive when several 
terms represent a possessor, 131. Formation of possessive by use of 
preposition of, 132. Case defined, 134. How many and what cases? 
134. Define nominative case ; possessive ; objective ; independ- 
ent, 135. 

Conjunctions. — Conjunctions defined, 96, 262. Classes, 262. 
Define a co-ordinate conjunction, 262. A subordinate, 262. Co- 
ordinates may show what ? 263. How many and what classes of co- 
ordinate conjunctions? 263. Define each. Subordinate conjunctions 
may join what? 263. How many and what classes? Define each, 
263. Co-ordinates may express what? 264, Subordinates? 264. 
Correlative conjunctions defined, 265. List of correlatives. 265. 
Method of parsing conjunctions, 266. 

Connectors. — Connectors defined, 89. Co-ordinate connectors, 
91. Subordinate, 95. Subordinate adjective connectors, 95. Sub- 
ordinate adverbial connectors, 95. Subordinate objective con- 
nectors, 95. 

Conjugation. — Conjugation defined, 229. Conjugation of verb 
be, 229. Conjugation of verb see, 234. 

Copula defined, 53, 55. Couplet defined, 273. Rules for use of 
comma in a couplet, 273. 

Curves, 279. The dash, 279. 

Elements. — An element defined, 27. Subordinate element, 27. 
Why so called? Forms of elements, 30. Adjective element de- 



304 INDEX AND REVIEW. 

fined, 38. Adverbial, 59, GO, 61. Arrangement of adverbial ele- 
ments, 64. Objective element defined, 74. Objective element may 
be added to what? 75. Compound element defined, 92. What kind 
of element belongs to a noun or pronoun ? 67. To a verb? 67. 
Punctuation of adverbial elements, 71. 

Exclamation point, 279. Each, either, every, and each other, 163. 

Fable A, 291. Figurative language, 2S3. A Figure and rules for 
use of. 284. 

Gender. — Developed and defined. 123, How many and what 
genders ? 124. Define each. Application of masculine nouns, 124. 
Gender of personified objects ? When are such in the masculine 
gender? Feminine? 125. How are masculine nouns changed to 
feminine? 125, 126. Illustrate by using different words, 126; by 
using different terminations ; by using distinguishing words, 127. 

Have is auxiliary of what? 214. Having and having been are 
auxiliaries of what? 215. 

INFINIVIVES. — Infinitives defined, 51, 211. After certain verbs 
used without to, 212. What two classes of infinitives? 213. Define 
Present infinitive, 214. Perfect? What is the auxiliary of the per- 
fect infinitive? 213. How many and what voices have infinitives? 
214. Infinitives used as nouns may be what? 216. Used as adjec- 
tives may express what? 216. Infinitives may be combined with 
what auxiliaries? 216. May be used to form what? 216. Infini- 
tives and participles having the construction of a noun, may be 
parsed how? 217. Order of paising, 219, What is said about par- 
ticiples and infinitives being used to assume attributes of their 
subjects? 222. Perfect infinitive represents what ? 225. Present? 225. 

Ideas, relation of senses to, 8. Ing is the ending of what ? 215. 

Interjections defined, 97, 271. List of principal interjections, 271. 

Language defined, 9. Kinds of language used in books? In 
convei-sation ? By mutes? 9. 

Letter Writing. — Classes of letters? 293. Parts of a letter? 
293. Superscription of a letter consists of what? 293. Body? 
Subscription? Address? 293. Rule for the use of titles, 294, 

Mode. — Developed and defined, 198, 199. How many modes? 
199. Define each, 199, 200. How many and what tenses in each 
mode? 201,202. Give the auxiliaries of each tense, and state how 



INDEX AND REVIEW. 305 

to form it. Subjunctive mode has how many and what forms? 202. 
Explain each, How many tenses in each form? 202. 

Negatives — two used in one sentence, 247. 

Nouns. — A noun defined, 34, Classes of nouns, 107. Proper 
noun ? 108. Common noun ? A noun usually common be- 
comes proper when. A Noun usually proper becomes com- 
mon when? 108. Abstract noun defined, 109. Verbal noun. Col- 
lective noun, 109. Full order and formula of parsing nouns, 136. 
Case of nouns and pronouns when used with copulative participles 
or infinitives, 222. Case of nouns and pronouns used as subject of 
a participle and having no relation to other parts of the sentence, 222. 

Number. — Developed and defined, 116. How many and what 
numbers? 116. Define each. What is said of the number of a col- 
lective noun? 116, 117. How is the plural of nouns ending in 
a sound that pleasantly unites with the sound of s formed? 118. 
When do we add es? How do nouns ending in y form their plural? 
Ending \\\f? In o? 119. Of figures, letters, &c. ? 119. How do 
compound nouns form their plurals? 120. What nouns are not plu- 
ralized? 120. What is said about plural of titles? 121. The plural 
of foreign nouns? 121, 

Objects of verbs defined, 132. What is f he direct object of a 
verb? 188. The indirect? 189. An attributive object expresses 
what? 190. May be what ? 190. 

One another, many a, 163. O, oh, 272. 

Participles, — Defined, 48, 211. Exemplified, 49. State what 
is said about the punctuation of sentences containing participles, 
212. Define present participle, 213 ; perfect. What is said about 
the voice of participles? 214. How many and what voices? Define 
each. When is an infinitive in the active voice? 214. In the pass- 
ive? In the neuter? Participles used as nouns may be what? 215. 
Used as adverbs may express what? 215. May be combined with be 
to form what? 216. With have to form what? May be tised to 
form what ? 216. Participles and infinitives having the construction 
of nouns may be parsed how? 217. Order of parsing, 219. What 
is the case of nouns used with copulative participles? 222. Parti- 
ciples and infinitives should not be used when? 224. What is said 
about using both participles and infinitives in the same sentence? 
225. What caution in reference to use of perfect participle? 226. 



3°6 INDEX AND REVIEW. 

Predicate. — Simple predicate developed, 16. Defined, 17. 
Complex developed, 25. Defined, 26. Attribute of predicate, 55. 

Preposition.— Developed and defined, 80, 81, 253. What is 
meant by the object of a preposition ? 83. May a preposition have more 
than one object? A preposition and its object shows an adjective 
relation when ? 83. An adverbial relation ? What is a simple prep- 
osition ? A complex? 253. Object of a preposition may be what? 
253. May two or more prepositions have but one object? 253. 
May a preposition and its object be separated? 253. May preposi- 
tions be understood? 254. Preposition and its object may be used 
how? 254. May be what kind of elements? 254. As adverbial ele- 
ment they may express what ? As adjective ? As indirect objective 
element, 255. List of prepositions, 255. Certain words follow cer- 
tain prepositions. Illustrate, 256. Parsing of prepositions, 259. 

Pronoun. — Developed and defined, 36. Antecedent defined, 138. 
Personal pronoun defined, 139. Compound personals formed how? 
139. Declension of pronouns, 140, 141. Pronouns agree how with 
their antecedents? 142. Parsed how? 143. Order of parsing per- 
sonal pronouns, 144. Relative pronouns, 146, 147. List of rela- 
tives, 147. Uses of who, which, what and that, 147. Relatives de- 
clined, 148. Use of that and which, 150. Order of parsing rela- 
tives, 152, Diagram of sentences containing relative clauses, 152. 
Compound relatives? 154. Interrogative pronouns? 155. Parsing 
of, 156. Adjective pronouns ? 156, 157. 

Person. — Developed and defined, 113- How many persons are 
there? 113. Define each and illustrate, 113, 114. 

Parts of Speech. — What are they? 107. Name them, 107. 

Principal parts of a verb, what? 180. Why are they so called? 180. 

Progressive form of a verb formed how ? 241. 

Phrase defined, 84. Period, use of, 278. 

Paragraph, 286. 

Proposition. — Defined, 58. Adjective proposition punctuated 
how? 71. 

Punctuation, 273. Of an adjective proposition used as an es- 
sential identifier, 71. Of one not introduced to give an essential 
idea, 71. Of an adverbial proposition, 71. Of adverbs forming a 
series, 72- Of a series composed of adjectives, 44. Of adverbial 
elements used parenthetically, 71. Of co-ordinate propositions, 269. 



INDEX AND REVIEW. 307 

Of adverbial propositions, &c, 269. Of emphatic adverbial ele- 
ments. Punctuation marks, 273. Use of comma in a couplet, 273. 
In a series, 274. Comma with adjective elements, 274. Comma 
with objective elements, 275. With adverbial elements ; with sub- 
ject of a proposition, 276. With predicate of a proposition. Inde- 
pendent elements, 277. Comma with omitted letters, 277. Yes and 
No. The parts of a date of a letter, 277. Semicolon used how ? 
277. Colon used how ? 278. Exclamation point? 279. Dash, 
Curves, Brackets and Quotation marks? 279. Caret, Hyphen, 
Underscore? 280. 

Relation. — Exemplified, 80. Representation of relation, 81. 

Sentence. — Defined, 8, Give example. Declarative ? 10. In- 
terrogative? 10. Exclamatory? 10. Imperative? 10. Give Exam- 
ples, Parts of sentence arranged how? 22. Give example. Simple, 
58, Complex, 69. Analyzed, 69. Order of analysis, 70. Form of 
analyzing, C. S., 76. Compound sentence defined, 89. Analysis of, 
89. Order of analyzing compound sentence, 90. Necessary to 
clear sense, 18. Necessary parts of. Which must be expressed? 
Give example. Simple changed into complex, 78, Writing of dif- 
ferent kinds of, 99. 

Senses, — Relation to ideas? 8. 

Series, 274. 

Shall and Will, 206. In declarative sentences. Shall in first 
person to denote what? Will in first person to denote what? Shall 
in second and third person to denote what? Will in second and 
third person to denote what ? In interrogative sentences. Shall in 
first person to denote what? In second person to denote what? 
Will in second person inquires for what? Shall in third person in- 
quires for what? Will in the third person, 207. Use of changed by 
emphasis, 207. 

Since, 257. 

Subject. — Simple developed, 13. Defined, 15. Complex devel- 
oped, 20. Defined, 21. Assumed defined, 212, 

Synopsis, 229. Of verb A? 233. Of verb see, 238. 

Several and sundry, 163. Such, 163. 

That, a relative pronoun used when ? 150. 

Tense. — Developed, 176. Defined, 177. How many and what 
tenses? 177. Define each tense, 177. How many and what perfect 



308 INDEX AND REVIEW. 

tenses? 178. Define each, 178, 179. What are signs of present per- 
fect ? 179, Of past perfect? 179. Of the future tense? 179 Of 
the future perfect ? 179. How many and what tenses in the indici- 
tivemode? 200. Auxiliaries of these tenses, 200, In the potential 
mode? 201. Auxiliaries of these tenses, 201. Tell what each tense 
in these modes represents or may represent, 201, 202. Tenses in 
imperative mode, 202. In common subjunctive, 202, In pure 
subjunctive, 202. 

Thoughts. — Told how? 7, 

To.— Called what? 212. 

Underscore. — The, 280. 

Verb. — Developed and defined, 45, 47. Attributive verb defined, 
56. Verbal word conjugated how? 229. Principal parts of, 229. 
Number and person of, 203. Agreement of in ? 204. Num- 
ber and person determined how? 204. Two or more subjects joined 
by or or vor, differing in person and number, agree how? 205. Two 
or more subjects joined by a copulative conjunction agree how? 205. 
Two or more singular nouns and pronouns taken singularly agree 
how? 205. Order of parsing,209. Objects of, 132. Defined, 174. Cop- 
ulative verbs, 174. Chief copulative verbs, 174. Attributive verb de- 
fined,174. Auxiliary defined, 178. Principal verb defined, 178. Princi- 
pal parts of, 180. A regular verb is? 180. An irregular verb is? 
180. Irregular verbs, list of, 181, &c. Redundant verb what? 184. 
A defective verb what? 184. A transitive verb what? 187. An in- 
transitive verb what ? 187. 

Voice. — Developed and defined, 193, 194. How many and what 
voices? 194. Define each — active, passive, neuter, 194. What is 
necessary in forming the passive voice ? 195, 

Which used when ? 150. 

Words of similar meaning, 98. Of opposite meaning. 98. Of 
similar form but different meaning, 98. Substituted for phrases, 100. 




[advertisement 



ESSONS IN ANGUAGE ; 

— AN — 

Introduction to the Study of English Grammar. 



By Hiram Hadley 



A beautifzd book oj '144 pages, finely illustrated ' ivith twenty -eight nice 

pictures, as texts for composition-writing; treats of punctuation, 

letter-writing, etc. Price, 60 cents. 

Hadley's Lessons in Language was the pioneer in the great 
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most popular book on that subject. 

It is designed for children from nine to thirteen years of age, and 
is intended as a substitute for the ordinary Primary English Grammar. 

It proceeds on the plan of teaching the science of the English lan- 
guage through the use of it, rather than the use of the language 
through the science of it. 

It teaches the child proper forms of expression by training him to 
observe and to imitate correct models. 

It teaches him to write compositions by furnishing him with pleas- 
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pupil's composition, and render this usually irksome exercise so fas- 
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The use of these pictures also aids much in forming in the pupil a 
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It teaches the use of capitals and punctuation, initiates the pupil 
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the close of the volume introduces, by a new plan, the parts of 
speech. 

A thorough knowledge of this small volume will do more to estab- 
lish a ready and correct use o( the language than is generally gained 
from large and expensive books. 



[hadley's lessons in language.] 
TESTIMONIALS. 



Prof. E. A. Sheldon, Principal Oswego State Normal Teachers' 
Institute, writes; 

Oswego, N. Y., December 14, 18723 

I have examined with much pleasure l 'Hadley's Lessons in Language," and I 
do not hesitate to pronounce it the best book that has yet been given to the public 
as an introduction to the study of English Grammar. The author has the right 
idea, has begun at the right point and in the right way. The principles which he 
enunciates are sound and philosophical, and the application he has made of them 
is eminently practical. If the plan laid down in this book we e thoroughly car- 
ried out in our schools, we should find our young people able to speak and write 
with far more ease and accuracy than it is possible for them to do with the present 
theoretical mode of studying English Grammar. I most earnestly recommend 
this book to the attention of teachers who are seeking better ways of teaching 
children to speak and write the English language. 



Hon. E. E. White, of Columbus, Ohio, says : 

This neat little manual presents a practical and teachable series of language 
lessons, and we earnestly wish that every elementary teacher in the country had 
its assistance. 



Prof J. II. Haldeman, Principal of School of Observation, State 
Normal School, Westfield, Mass , writes ; 

Both teachers and pupils are delighted. Yonr book /its into our course so 
well that I think we shall always use it. 



Hon. J. M. McKenzie, Superintendent Public Instruction, State 
of Nebraska, writes : 

I can honestly say I like your little work on language, and am encouraging our 
teachers to use it. 



Prof. J. V. Montgomery, Superintendent of School of Practice, 
State Normal School, Millersville, Pa., writes; 

I examined the Lessons in Language carefully, and I am free to say that I 
consider it the best book of the kind I have seen. It is practical, progressive and 
instructive. It is a gem 0/ its kind. These features commend themselves so 
favorably to me that I intend at once to use the work in our classes. 1 can, with 
pleasure, conscientiously recommend it. 



[hadley's lessons in language.] 

Hon. II. IL Wilson, Superintendent of Public Instruction, State 
of Minnesota, says : 

I like it VERY MUCH. It comes up to my idea of what a course of instruc- 
tion for children in Language should be. I have recommended it in the highest 
terms to all the teachers whom I address on the topic of Language. It is of in - 
finitely more importance to a child that he should be taught how to write and 
speak his mother tongue with ease and correctness, than that he should acquire a 
knowledge of technical rules, definitions and paradigms, from a text book on En- 
glish Grammar. I have become thoroughly disgusted with the old method of 
teaching what is called Grammar (?) IT UTTERLY FAILS to secure what 
it professes to teach, viz : how to speak and write our language correctly. 



Geo. L. Maris, A. M., Principal of State Normal School, West 
Chester, Pennsylvania, writes: 

Your l 'Language Lessons" is so far superior to any other elementary work I 
have seen, that 1 deem it a duty to give this expression of approval. We shall in- 
troduce it into our model school. 

August ist, 1873. 



Prof. Joseph Forster, Salt Sulphur Springs, West Va., writes : 

Lessons in Language was duly received, and when submitted to the test of 
the school-room it came out like gold tried in the fire. 



Prof. Jos. G. Edgerly, Superintendent of Schools, Manchester, 
N. II.. after having used the book one year writes : 
It is the best book in existence for Primaiy Schools. 



Prof. Marvin S. Cole, Superintendent of Schools, Olean, N. Y., 
writes, under date of July 13, 1874 : 

Some time since I received a copy cf 'Hadley's Language Lessons." I was 
convinced of the practical value of the work frcm the first, and put it into the 
hands of one of my teachers for a trial. The result is, the class, in the twelve 
weeks in which it was drilled, learned more -practical grammar than I ever be- 
lieved it possible for a class to learn in that time. Next term, I intend every 
teacher, who has pupils of the right grade, shall use the book. Please send me a 
copy of your English Grammar, and if it proves, upon examination, to be any- 
thing near as good as your Language Lessons, I will adopt it for use in our 
schools. We are using Grammar, but it is a failure, and now, at the begin- 
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Wc can furnish hundreds of similar testimonials. 



[hadley's lessons in language.] 

Teachers and Boards of Education : 

We invite your attention to a few points : 

I, English Grammar, as usually taught to children, has utterly 
failed to satisfy either teacher or pupil. 

IT. All parties interested agree that children should be early 
trained in the use of language, and that the study of Grammar — the 
science of the language — belongs to more mature minds, and hence 
should be deferred to a later period. 

III. The ability to express thought readily in written language 
is of the highest importance in practical life. 

IV. Composition Writing can be made as attractive to children 
as any other study. 

Therefore, please consider the question : Will it not pay you to 
drop Grammar from those grades attended by pupils under twelve 
years of age, and substitute a thorough course of lessons in language? 
If so, why not make the experiment at once? 

In LARGE graded schools, where teachers have the time neces- 
sary to carry on, orally, a systematic course of language lessons, 
Hadley's Lessons in Language is used as a manual by the teachers. 
Jn other schools it is used by the pupils as other text-books are. 

The plan of the book contemplates patient study on the part of 
pupils, and this cannot be secured easily unless the pupils have the 
use of the books. A judicious and faithful union of the two methods 
indicated will produce the most satisfactory results. 

Sent to any address on receipt of price, 60 cents. Regular in- 
troductory rates for first supply. 

IIADLEY BROTHERS, Publishers. 

136 State Street, Chicago. 



